Desirable Small-Scale Solar Power Production in a Global Context: Local Tradition-Inspired Solutions to Global Issues
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EnergoBit Control Systems, 400285 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Aquaproiect SA, 060031 Bucharest, Romania
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Electrical Engineering Department, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 400020 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Romania Hidrotechnical Engineering Department, Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest; 020396 Bucharest, Romania
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Aqua Prociv Proiect SRL, 400457 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Solar 2025, 5(4), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5040047
Submission received: 12 August 2025
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Revised: 5 September 2025
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Accepted: 25 September 2025
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Published: 17 October 2025
Abstract
The polder in this case study addresses several environmental issues, risk management concerns related to localities served by existing non-permanent dams, energy requirements that can meet a locality’s needs during the renewable energy transition, and their impacts on both rural and urban built environments. Cultural landscape preservation or solar regeneration on agricultural plots in Romania’s rural wetland areas focuses on traditionally inspired design, emphasising the technical versus humanistic approach as an optimal path through some inspiring “Dyads”. Briefly, the dyads are related to Bennett’s systematic approach to ensure the knowledge necessary for achieving understanding without experiencing it. With a two-way spiral, the defined methodology applies energy as solar photovoltaic technology to water-related natural aspects in the built environment without reducing or harming the relevant water management related to nature or built cultural heritage. The Solar Regeneration Monad “Nature -Energy- Built” is a holistic visual framework, replicable in any built environment for a “Built” regenerative culture, that enables the best solution to be identified for the conservation of cultural heritage values in an “Energy” transition context with “Nature”, biodiversity, or other water-related issues.
1. Introduction
The specific or small-scale research gap through some inspiring “Dyads” [1] concerns whether the traditional nature-based solution [NBS] [2] design approach could be replicated in another area. The study considers three pillars: Energy, Nature, and Built. Energy is represented by solar photovoltaics, Nature by blue and green, and Built by the cultural heritage of traditional landscapes. Hundertwasser outlined the relevance of tradition in a well-known quote: “If we do not honor our past, we lose our future. If we destroy our roots, we cannot grow”. The painting “The Big Way” [3,4] may have inspired the holistic visual framework [5].
The rural regions to be analysed are located in three distinct areas of Romania: the first is Zerindu Polder, Arad County, Romania [Z-AR], with a replicate in the nearby Tămaşda Polder [T-BH], Bihor County, Romania, both as agricultural plots, and the third is a traditional family plot from Săcuţa locality, Boroaia, Suceava County, Romania [S-SV], where one author’s family heritage photos and stories serve as the research base, as the area has now become natural and almost a wilderness area.
This research offers a conceptual analysis of various technologies, including agrivoltaics with potential for green hydrogen production and fish-friendly micro-hydropower, as complementary energy storage solutions.
On the humanistic side, the preservation of cultural landscapes and traditional farming knowledge is highlighted. This paper presents a comprehensive study integrating indigenous and conventional agricultural practices with modern renewable energy systems. This study examines how cultural heritage and local knowledge can influence sustainable energy solutions, focusing on agrivoltaics and restoring the existing polder systems with nature-based solutions. The humanistic and conceptual technical concerns are the relevant issues assumed in the research focus area.
The research question is the following: Can a methodology with a holistic framework be used to enhance traditional design in small-scale solar solutions for agricultural landscapes? The research gap needs to be addressed and ancestral wisdom is utilised to develop culturally integrated technological solutions.
2. Holistic Framework—Methodology
This paper begins by establishing the theoretical foundation of this study, drawing on Bennett’s systematics and the concept of the Solar Regeneration Monad [5]. This research introduces three key dyads to guide their analysis: Technology vs. Tradition, Technical vs. Humanistic, and Active vs. Passive. These dyads are presented not as contradictory forces but as complementary elements that must be understood and balanced for effective and sustainable development. The Methodology section outlines the research approach to analysing these dyads across multiple scales, from individual agricultural plots to global contexts. They emphasise the importance of integrating traditional knowledge and modern technical understanding using a spiral process to move from “knowledge” to “understanding” in each domain.
The chapter on the NATURE dyad explores the relationship between traditional and technological approaches in environmental management. This research focuses on biodiversity metrics, the carbon sequestration potential, and the integration of conventional and indigenous water management systems with modern agricultural technologies. A particular focus is placed on the role of wetlands and their preservation in the face of Anthropocene-driven changes. The BUILT dyad examines the intersection of humanistic and technical approaches in agricultural infrastructure and energy production. This research examines the assessment of cultural heritage, traditional building practices, and the adaptation of rural structures to integrate renewable energy. Case studies of traditional rural plots in Boroaia [S-SV] and Anthropocene agricultural plots in the Zerindu Polder [Z-AR] and Tămaşda Polder [T-BH], Bihor County, also highlight how this balance can be achieved. The ENERGY dyad explores the relationship between passive and active energy systems, analysing the carbon footprint, water footprint, and the potential for renewable energy generation.
This research presents detailed assessments of agrivoltaic systems, translucent photovoltaic coverings for irrigation canals, and the integration of fish-friendly micro-hydropower. The Dyads were proposed to be related to the monad after Bennett’s systematics was introduced, specifically in the context of “Knowledge” detailed in Table 1 vs. “Understanding” in Figure 1.
Dyads proposed to be related to the “Solar Regeneration” Monad are as follows:
- “Technical vs. Humanist” as BUILT criteria;
- “Technology vs. Tradition” as NATURE criteria;
- “Active vs. Passive” as ENERGY criteria.
The theme relevant in the dyad-related context is “vs./versus” or “together despite opposites”. “Knowledge” without “understanding” is somewhat equivalent to “technical”/“technology”/“active” without their opposites: “humanist”/“tradition”/“passive”, all of which are opposites but together without prioritisation. The dyad needs the impulse to move in a triad for understanding the process. The spiral is proposed as a process to achieve a monad; the impulse required, in addition to the opposing terms in the dyad, is the growth–degrowth impulse. Translating the “knowledge” criteria into “understanding” requires a process. Bennett’s systematics offers a set of regulations applicable to the abstract, an academic way of reaching “understanding” through the antithesis–thesis (dyad) to the Hegelian dialectic (thesis, antithesis, and synthesis), similar to the impulses of Bennett’s triad.
The Hegelian dialectic provides a framework for development in a one-way spiral. However, Bennett’s triads represent a way of gaining and re-gaining through a two-way spiral covering the “knowledge” necessary for achieving “understanding” and making a multicriteria decision essential in any holistic solution. The spiral notes the equal weight of the knowledge metaphors in the creation of the rosette: B—BUILT + N—NATURE + E—ENERGY on the scales, from small to large, of O—Object, L—Locality, T—Territory, and G—Global, applied to projects at any starting points.
2.1. Methodology—Knowledge vs. Understanding of Solar Regeneration-Related Dyads
The dyads are Knowledge (Table 1) vs. Understanding, (Figure 1) as well as Technology vs. Tradition/Technical vs. Humanist/Active vs. Passive. “Knowledge vs. Understanding” is the dyad according to the views of Bennett, who detailed systematics to make the transition from “knowledge” to “understanding”, which usually requires experimentation.
Therefore, the “vs./versus” term in the main dyads means “opposite but together” and represents the research gaps of the “Solar Regeneration” Monad we try to analyse as a whole. We can develop a “3—Active vs. Passive” dyad related to the energy transition from Energy criteria or the same “2—Technology vs. Tradition” dyad in the ecological transition of the Nature criteria and EU taxonomy detailed in Table 2, and the “1—Technical vs. Humanist” dyad related to urban metabolism for the Built criteria. Knowledge is defined through technical criteria for BUILT (detailed in Table 3)—NATURE (detailed in Table 4)––ENERGY (detailed in Table 5) and is somewhat partially related to the environment–social–governance framework in many ways.
Figure 2 shows the visual holistic framework [5] of the methodology. Related dyads and the growth–degrowth process required are defined as follows: the Regenerative Monad Dyad, according to Bennett [1], is that “knowledge” learned or transmitted requires a growth–degrowth process for achieving “understanding” that typically involves experimentation. After the criteria related to knowledge in Table 1 are determined, the following three dyads were developed for the Regenerative Monad:
1—The new dyad “1—Tradition” needs to be perfected after many “1—Technology” implementations on different scales in a growth–degrowth fine-tuning process;
2—The new dyad “2—Humanist” needs more “2—Technical” accomplishments, which are often repeated in the same fine-tuning growth–degrowth process;
3—The new dyad “3—Passive” is flawlessly achieved through an optimal “3—Active” process after a growth–degrowth fine-tuning process.
2.2. NATURE [5,6]—Regenerative Dyad “Tradition vs. Technology”
This dyad examines the relationship between traditional and technological approaches in natural contexts, with a focus on biodiversity, agriculture, and environmental management. The research analyses how conventional agricultural practices and modern technological solutions can be integrated to enhance biodiversity and ecological sustainability. The analysis is conducted across different scales, from individual plots to entire ecosystems. Specific attention is given to the roles of wetlands, traditional water management systems, and their integration with modern agricultural technologies.
The next paragraphs include more detailed assessments of biodiversity metrics, carbon sequestration potential, and the impacts of different land management approaches on natural systems.
2.3. BUILT [5,6]—Regenerative Dyad “Humanist vs. Technical”
This dyad analyses the intersection of humanistic and technical approaches in built environments. This research examines how cultural heritage, traditional building practices, and modern technical solutions can be integrated into agricultural and energy infrastructure. The analysis encompasses a heritage value assessment and the preservation of cultural landscapes. Particular attention is paid to adapting traditional rural structures for modern energy production while maintaining their cultural significance.
This section thoroughly examines how indigenous and traditional property boundaries and land use patterns can be preserved while incorporating modern renewable energy systems. The measures are related to a dam/polder that protects against flood risks in both urban and rural areas, as well as the geographical and environmental factors that influenced the locality’s development [9]. The built heritage also responded to the same factors through the impressive vernacular bioclimatic architecture and traditional landscape, which developed the specific cultural landscape over time. The influence of technologies on this cultural landscape is reasonably well controlled, as indicated by the “related risks” line across all scales, and generates the answer through the return path of the holistic spiral. Thus, the proper answer is redefined over and over until an optimal solution for all issues identified is achieved.
2.4. ENERGY [5,6,10]—Regenerative Dyad “Passive vs. Active”
This dyad explores the relationship between passive and active energy systems in agricultural contexts.
This research analyses different energy generation and consumption approaches, examining the carbon footprint, water footprint, renewable energy potential, and energy consumption patterns across various scales. This study includes a detailed assessment of how traditional passive energy systems can be integrated with active solar power generation [11]. The analysis encompasses specific metrics for energy efficiency and environmental impacts, including the carbon sequestration potential and water use efficiency in various agricultural systems.
3. New BUILT [S-SV] vs. [Z-AR] [T-BH] Regenerative Dyad “Humanist vs. Technical”
The conventional wetland in Arad County was designed as a non-permanent water accumulation area. [Z-AR] [12] vs. [S-SV] Săcuța village, Boroaia, Suceava County, an area at the confluence of two watercourses with fluctuating flows, naturally creates a temporary wetland. The connection between the two sites seems coincidental, but it was related to an exodus of over 150 families from a village in Banat in the Suceava area, which occurred due to a plague epidemic in the 15th century. We can only assume that some of or their knowledge was transmitted by some family members, according to the words of some old Boroaia teachers and details that are not very specific in the village monograph.
The area of the village of Boroaia [S-SV] has relatively unproductive agricultural lands. For this reason, and due to the morphological environment, some risk management works related to the watercourse are considered according to current norms. However, the hydrotechnical works in [S-SV] Boroaia, Suceava County, were determined by the eloquently named watercourse, Seaca/tr. Drought/Dry, which presents torrent-like flow fluctuations. Such techniques are not specific to the Moldova River basin’s ethnological or morphological geographical area. They seem to have emerged by acquiring technical knowledge from migrants from a traditional wetland area, such as Arad County. The migrants implemented secular agricultural practices, including water management systems, which were traditional in the distinct support areas with a Neolithic history. However, they could find this locally, having transferred their knowledge from the Arad area, specifically from or near the Zerindu polder area. Thus, the other location to be analysed, Zerindu Polder [Z-AR] [12], is a temporary dam area enclosed by dikes, demonstrating human adaptation to wetland conditions through traditional Anthropocene engineering. However, this can also be historically documented in the Banat area as the implementation of landscape-specific techniques (ditches as crop boundaries and plots linked to dwellings/households delimited by arranged ditches). A network of rivers and streams characterises both sites, and the creation and management of water channels have shaped a cultural landscape with a specific set of traditional activities over time.
Traditional property boundaries mark the landscape, and agricultural plots reflect historical land use patterns through the design and management of indigenous ditches versus modern Anthropocene adaptations of flood risk management, such as the construction of dikes and polders. The Boroaia traditional rural plots and the Zerindu Polder case studies offer a rich contrast, showcasing how traditional knowledge can aid in the design of modern sustainable practices.
The Boroaia case examines historical land use patterns, water management systems, and indigenous cultural practices conserved in a vernacular village, Săcuța. At the same time, the Zerindu polder [Z-AR] [12] represents a more contemporary approach to agricultural production within the Anthropocene era.
3.1. Traditional Rural Plots [S-SV] vs. [Z-AR] Anthropocene Agricultural Plots
This dyad presents detailed case studies of two contrasting agricultural settings: traditional rural plots in Boroaia, Suceava County [S-SV] vs. [Z-AR] [12] Anthropocene agricultural plots of Zerindu Polder.
This research examines historical land use patterns, traditional water management systems, and cultural practices in Boroaia, dating back to ancient times. Contemporary agricultural practices, water management systems, and the potential for integrating renewable energy in the Zerindu Polder [Z-AR] are examined. The comparison highlights how traditional knowledge can inform modern sustainable practices while addressing contemporary agrarian production and energy generation challenges. Romanian history significantly shaped the region’s rural settlement patterns and agricultural traditions.
The uprising led to the widespread reorganisation of rural communities, establishing distinctive property boundaries and traditional farming plots that remain visible in today’s cultural landscape. In its aftermath, many communities adopted specific agricultural practices and land management approaches, particularly in areas like Boroaia, where traditional plot layouts and water management systems reflect this historical influence.
The uprising’s legacy is evident in the spatial organisation of rural settlements, the preservation of communal farming traditions, and the cultural emphasis on maintaining traditional agricultural knowledge alongside technological advancement.
This historical event created enduring patterns in how local communities approach land use, water management, and the balance between traditional practices and modern development, making it particularly relevant to contemporary discussions about sustainable agricultural development and cultural preservation in Romanian rural areas. The ancestral agricultural and water management practices, developed over many years in Romania’s rural wetlands, represent sophisticated environmental adaptations and sustainable resource management systems.
These practices evolved over generations through careful observation and the accumulation of wisdom. The agricultural system features carefully planned field patterns following the natural topography, utilising terraced slopes and drainage channels. Farmers traditionally divide the land into small, irregular plots that work with rather than against the natural water flow patterns. This approach helps prevent soil erosion while maximising water retention in drier periods. Water management practices are particularly noteworthy in wetland regions, where communities developed intricate networks of channels, retention ponds, and natural filters. These systems demonstrate remarkable efficiency in managing seasonal flooding, directing excess water away from crops while retaining sufficient moisture for dry periods. Traditional knowledge includes precise water release and retention timing based on seasonal patterns and crop needs.
The practices incorporate sophisticated crop rotation patterns that maintain soil fertility naturally, with specific combinations of plants chosen for their mutual benefits and adaptation to local conditions. Traditional field boundaries often feature specific vegetation for multiple purposes: marking property lines, providing windbreaks, and supporting local wildlife. These systems represent more than mere practical solutions—they form an integral part of the cultural heritage, with specific traditions, customs, and ceremonies associated with different agricultural activities throughout the year.
Knowledge is traditionally passed down through generations, with each community maintaining its unique variations adapted to its specific microclimate and terrain. Based on historical maps, both sites are archaeological heritage sites: [S-SV] Secuta Cimec archaeological map of the Tumular necropolis, Daco–Roman period (3rd–4th century) RAN 147081.01 LMI code SV-I-s-B-05398 [13] vs. the [Z-AR] Zerindu [12]/[T-BH] Tămaşda [12] Cimec archaeological map, the Josephine Map, 1782–1785 [13].
3.2. BUILT [S-SV] Case Study of Traditional Rural Plots—Boroaia, Suceava County, Romania Traditional Rural Plot—and Historical Assessment [14,15]
The origin of the Boroaia village name is based on the “hypothesis of transfer from Transylvania”. This hypothesis is also mentioned in the monograph on the locality, which considers it reasonably certain. The Banat area is remembered for the 150 families that left the village of Macea, Arad County, for Moldova, near Suceava [15]. Boroaia and Săcuţa are known to have been established around 1772–1774, but the documentation is unavailable.
Historical village monographs reveal some dates: “Boroaia is also a prehistoric locality (…) and on the terrace of the Tîrziu stream, (…) Neolithic (Cucuteni phase A)” [14], an archaeologically protected site near Boroaia village, Tumular necropolis, Daco–Roman period (3rd–4th century) [13].
“Hydrological data”. The Săcuţa village [16] in Secuţa, Moldavia (1892–1898), is related to the Romanian Seaca River (meaning “dry, drained”), a temporary river that flows intermittently. On a smaller scale, a family plot area, “the names of some families (…) C. family name”, appears, and teacher Nicolae Cercel [17] remembered that this family’s origin is from the Banat area in Transylvania]. [tr.n.] inhabitants of Boroaia village came from Transylvania between 1742 and 1774, which constitute two certain historical references; One (1742) that does not include the Boroaia among the estates of the monasteries Râzca, Neamt and Secu, another that includes (1774) as the estates of these three monasteries, when their captain, Bora, dying, remained the woman of Boroaia (Bora’s feminine)” [18]. The plot for the first family member, named C., dated 1899 [tr.n.] "1899: It is published towards the general knowledge that, on November 18, 1899, 11 hours, will be held, in the premises of the City Hall of the respective communes on which each of the goods noted below, oral public auction for leasing the lands, of hay and of the mountain hollows for the pasture, by their land, Boroaia: (...) C. Family name “C”(7 ha, 8000 sqm)" [19]”, bears the same name as that of other villages in the same county, such as SV3-Brosteni, a village with inhabitants of Transylvanian origin. The same origin of the relocated inhabitants was noted for Fundu Moldovei village, Mălini, where the ditches appear as plot limits, a particular measure characteristic of a wetland landscape, as seen in Păltinoasa, Stuplicani, Vatra Moldoviţei, and Brodina de Sus [15]. Banat is a known wetland where water is scarce in warm periods. The family origin appears to have imported the knowledge for managing a related confluence of rivers with wetland areas during rainy times of the year and scarcity in warm periods [20].
The period related to the Anthropocene was mainly focused on agricultural production, and these land works were significant in one year, with specific traditions and immaterial cultural heritage. In the 2000s, the village’s activities decreased due to relative abandonment. The reduced maintenance of land works affected the landscape and caused landslides near the watercourse. However, it also expanded vegetation to a degree of wildness that transformed wetlands into protected areas, a desirable post-Anthropocene regenerative design [21]. This evolution is also documented on GIS maps.
Figure 3 display the cadastral support image ancpi/geoportal map [S-SV], with areas related to the extended family marked with numbers. Ponds are also marked to define a blue–green corridor visible on the anterior map plans, with decreased or increased green spaces related to the year affiliated, as shown on GIS maps from 2005 to 2024. Sentinel 2 land cover [22,23] was compared between 2017 and 2024, and the land cover evolution for plot 3 showed no marked change in land use. If the two Sentinel 2 maps revealed a decrease in the green area for the entire Săcuţa locality, the blue–green corridor would increase.
Figure 4 [S-SV] shows a planimetric sketch; Figure 5a shows photos of the pond and watercourse wetland area in [S-SV]; and Figure 5b shows other sketches of the No. 3 plot, Ilie C.’s plot, and traditional landscaping (sketched plan and land sections) in [S-SV]. Every part of Plot No. 3 was landscaped in a family-oriented, almost urbanistic design environment, featuring a house with a front flower garden, a yard, a vegetable garden, a beehive area, a cornfield, and a pasture, all delimited by numerous ditches and a natural wetland with a pond area. The pond continues to be set until the watercourse, the natural wetland for most of the year, is bounded by the Seaca watercourse.
3.3. BUILT [Z-AR] [12] Case Study of Anthropocene Agricole Plots—Zerind Polder, Arad County, Romania
The TRIAD for small-scale regeneration proposes re-naturalisation for NATURE, rehabilitation for BUILT, and solar energy production for ENERGY in the particular Romanian polder. NATURE—By restoring the courses of the old meanders and replacing the inner dykes space in the polders as with canals in the wetlands, the wetland landscape works.
Depending on how the population assimilates the new measures, smaller channels along the property boundaries are proposed to delimit areas with the same agricultural culture. Changing the culture will develop communities within the polders for ecological agriculture, which avoids the use of pesticides by replacing them with temporary land flooding. Some agricultural plots will be agrivoltaic areas to achieve a proper area for some specific cultures and renewable energy production.
[Z-AR]: The Sentinel 2 land cover map for 2024 is very similar to the Sentinel 2 land cover map since 2017. For wetland areas, the available Copernicus Sentinel 2 data, and cold meanders that still need to be considered for renaturation can have impacts on biodiversity and biocapacity as wetlands, a NATURE-related criterion. The ENERGY areas (Figure 6) for agriculture are marked by canals on property boundaries, which provide access to water during dry periods (irrigation) and minimal protection against crop flooding during rainy periods, as indicated by plot boundaries in the traditional wetland area landscape. There are also well-known nature-based solutions (NBSs) [2] that address various challenges, from food security to natural disaster risks. The benefits of wetlands include the increase in biodiversity, the expansion of carbon storage, the restoration of water reserves, protection against floods and drought, and the ecological agriculture seen in these polders. The polder area dates back to the 20th century, and we have already admitted that the traditional family plot landscape with dikes is also part of the cultural heritage of Banat wetland areas [20].
4. New NATURE [Z-AR] Regenerative Dyad “Tradition vs. Technology”
Table 6 provides information on biodiversity and carbon sequestration, and is essential for a technical evaluation of different land covers. We can observe that the wetlands area, on a per-hectare basis, has the best carbon sequestration per year, overall vegetation, and soil. Suppose the forest is better at vegetation sequestration, with a value of 120 tonnes of carbon per year. In that case, soil sequestration puts the wetlands as the first and best option, with a significant difference: overall 686 tonnes per year compared to the overall 243 tonnes for temperate forests.
Carbon sequestration is needed and incorporates biodiversity into a budgeted plan before biodiversity credits are legislated. As measured by biodiversity metrics, in cases where biodiversity credits are not available, carbon credits are assumed to be utilised. The “Biodiversity metrics” [26] instrument appears to be more accurate than the “G-res tool” [27] metric dedicated to dams and polders. The “Biodiversity metrics” provide measures and measurements for land covers areas such as cropland, grassland, heathland and shrub/tundra, intertidal zones, hard structures, intertidal sediment (relevant in water course landscape design for longitudinal continuity), lakes, sparsely vegetated land, urban areas, woodlands and forests, coastal saltmarshes, and rivers; the “G-res tool metric” related to Google Earth engine measurements for land covers such as cropland, grassland/shrubland, bare area, permanent snow/ice (not appearing in the first metric, but assimilated), waterbodies, settlements, forest, drained peatlands, and wetlands is similar. The Gres-tool is more accurate for specific blue–green design issues. It is similar to those available in the United Kingdom, but with a lower level of accuracy. A gap in implementing local biodiversity tools and biodiversity credits appears to exist. A holistic and accurate tool to score biodiversity value [28] would be helpful in the preliminary design stage.
Figure 6 presents the Zerindu site plan [Z-AR], which includes the support drawing plan with site-protected areas, such as the Crișul Negru river, and the pink line representing the polder dikes’ boundaries. The measures for the three dyads, NATURE–ENERGY–BUILT, were noted as colour codes (green, blue, and pink) for increased visibility.
Figure 6 presents the concept for the polder, incorporating all relevant works proposed in a regenerative design—NATURE with biodiversity works. ENERGY measures also noted (Table 7): 1. the watercourse’s longitudinal connectivity with minimal interventions like fish-friendly micro-hydropower; 2. polder boundary preservation of built dykes—internal polder contour channel; 3. old meander renaturation; 4. the old internal polder dike was demolished and redesigned as a canal with a wetland landscape area; 5. agricultural landscape of an inner polder with dykes on property boundaries with specific new/rebuilt irrigation canals as “cultural” boundaries (green concrete material irrigation canals covered by translucent photovoltaic panels for energy production and energy consumption through pumped water irrigation); 6. agrivoltaic properties with trees and specific culture need solar shading for solar PV energy production; and 7. fish-friendly micro-hydropower for Solar PV energy storage and energy production/green hydrogen production—PV energy consumption.
5. New ENERGY [Z-AR] Regenerative Dyad “Passive vs. Active”
Table 7 presents the proposal with energy measures related to the “Passive vs. Active” dyad.
5.1. Agrivoltaic Production
Agrivoltaics is a land use practice that warrants further study.
As shown in Table 5 for the ENERGY dyad “Passive vs. Active”, renewable energy options include agrivoltaics, translucent solar panels on irrigation canals, micro-hydropower systems designed to be fish-friendly, and the potential for smaller-scale green hydrogen production. The relevant energy consumers include agriculture-specific installations, irrigation pumps, and facilities for producing green hydrogen. A Moroccan study [30] proposes a solar-powered single-stage distillation system for treating domestic wastewater.
Additionally, polders, which typically help prevent flooding in rural villages, could also be utilised to supply wastewater as a feedwater source. Solar power generation can be further increased by creating rural energy communities that use local energy resources, such as Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPVs) or agrivoltaics within polders.
The approach to cultivating different crops on the same land supports nature-related measures, including biodiversity conservation and sustainable farming practices [31]. Agrivoltaic panels are generally oriented in an east–west direction, rather than south-facing. Without energy storage implemented in a polder that uses east–west-oriented agrivoltaic panels, vertical photovoltaic (PV) systems, including bifacial solar panels, can achieve capacity factors comparable to those of traditional ground-mounted solar farms, despite their orientation.
While collocating solar energy production with farming might decrease yields in certain areas, studies have indicated that it can increase yields for specific types of plants, depending on the location and weather conditions. Research has shown that some crops are more sensitive to shading than others. Land-use efficiency [32] is assessed by comparing the total solar electricity generation with that of a traditional ground-mounted solar farm, as well as comparing the crop yield with that of an unshaded reference.
5.2. Photovoltaics Covering Irrigation Canals
Originally developed to address water loss by reducing evaporation in agricultural regions, the panels covering irrigation canals evolved into canal-covering technologies in the late Anthropocene.
The technology is adapted for areas with extensive irrigation networks, mainly where traditional water management systems require modernisation without complete reconstruction, and for aquatic biodiversity. Translucent photovoltaics were chosen, or simply spaced bifacial panels, for agricultural communities, such as those in polders, which are becoming both energy and agricultural communities. Unique, adapted design modalities that better fit local farming practices and/or traditional irrigation patterns can be introduced.
Semi-transparent photovoltaic panels or spaced bifacial panels, designed for covering irrigation canals, are recommended in arid areas, as noted in [Z-AR], but are not necessarily recommended for covering meanders that have been re-naturalised to increase biodiversity. Implementing translucent solar panels is transforming water management in agriculture while generating green energy. These panels reduce water evaporation from covered canals, thereby conserving water in agricultural regions that are vulnerable to severe drought. Reduced evaporation and algae growth in the covered canals have improved water quality. The electricity generated supports the local farming community, which becomes an energy community while maintaining traditional farming practices that a family can implement on a specific rural plot within an indigenous traditional landscape design.
At the same time, as shown in a replicability study in [T-BH] Tămaşda Polder, Bihor County, reveals that the NATURE area for biodiversity is not similar to the ENERGY area, where this type of covered irrigation channel is observed.
5.3. Solar Storage Potential
Solar storage could include green hydrogen production and fish-friendly micro-hydropower, but a more detailed technical design is needed to be implemented in a future design proposal. The dyad related to ENERGY may examine various approaches to solar energy storage in agricultural settings, as sketched in Figure 7 and shown in Figure 8. A fish-friendly micro-hydro-power plant associated with a lateral dam or water reserve area near the watercourse could be considered for one of the two discussed polders. However, this research stage analyses the possible and desirable aspects without detailing technical solutions, focusing solely on the potential for green hydrogen production and the potential of fish-friendly micro-hydropower systems. This study includes a comprehensive list, along with technical specifications. It analyses the potential, rather than the feasibility, of green hydrogen production for implementing fish-friendly micro-hydropower systems without detailing technical solutions or specifications for different storage methods. Figure 7 shows a concept sketch of the case study in [Z-AR] [12] Zerindu Polder, Arad County, and the related replicability case study in [T-BH] [12] Tămaşda Polder, Bihor County, with measures noted; both are located on the Crişul Negru river.
- ENERGY AREA—APV plots, fish-friendly micro-hydropower, and existing irrigation canal with semi-transparent photovoltaic covering.
- NATURE AREA—renaturation for meanders with wetland/pond areas. The old internal polder dike was removed to transform the canal into a wetland area.
6. Discussion
The primary practical findings on integrating traditional agricultural approaches with modern renewable energy systems primarily focus on the case studies of the traditional residential plot [S-SV] Boroaia, Suceava County, and the related agrarian plots in Zerindu Mic Polder, Arad County [Z-AR], with replicability in [T-BH] Tămaşda Polder in Bihor County.
The final similar SWOT (Table 8) analysis of the humanistic side highlights strengths, including the preservation of cultural landscapes and traditional agricultural knowledge, while weaknesses include potential resistance to change from local communities. Opportunities highlighted in the SWOT analysis include the potential for extending these approaches to other regions and the possibility of developing new technological solutions that better integrate with traditional practices. Threats are examined from both technical and humanistic perspectives (such as the impact of climate change and the loss of indigenous knowledge).
David Seamon’s Place Monad [53], which was accepted in the Place Petal of the Living Building Challenge regenerative system, was as inspiring as Bennett’s methodology. Another assumed date is the European taxonomy with DNSH (Table 2) principles applied to energy, water, and recyclable materials, as well as mitigation (water floods) and adaptation (renewable energy) environmental criteria.
The fundamental relationships explored in the dyads related to the two-way spiral methodology are Technology vs. Tradition (Nature), Technical vs. Humanistic (Built), and Active vs. Passive (Energy). Each dyad can effectively combine traditional knowledge and modern technological solutions to create sustainable and culturally appropriate systems. A similar SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis assesses the technical and humanistic aspects of the studied systems. The technical strengths identified include successfully integrating agrivoltaic systems with traditional agricultural practices and efficient water management through the modernisation of older systems. The technical weaknesses focus on the higher initial costs and the complexity of implementing hybrid systems.
This research highlights the importance of traditionally inspired design, which assumes replicability and local acceptance, supported by ethnographic evidence from historical studies, as seen in the BUILT category, underscoring the need to balance technical and humanistic approaches, as well as the importance of ENERGY and NATURE principles, following DNSH. This research aims to demonstrate the replicability of the holistic framework in related design-built projects, such as the two-way spiral design framework, as well as the replicability of the solar energetic community in the [Z-AR] and [T-BH] polder research areas, which are specifically relevant to the Romanian agricultural wetlands. Any dam protects against flood risks in both urban and rural localities and significantly defines a geographical environment where the same locality developed. One must understand the history and environment that generated the most significant Anthropocene settlements, urban localities, to study these settlements. The transformation of an Anthropocene settlement with regenerative measures requires one to scale up and down all the measures in a growth–degrowth spiral until reaching the optimal, non-invasive measure for both humans and nature.
7. Conclusions
The research question targeted in this study involved the visual holistic framework methodology used to enhance traditional design. The research gap addressed regarding culturally integrated technological solutions was examined in various ways from a conceptual technical view; more detailed technical elements will be addressed as the next step.
The spiral concept is a framework model that provides a holistic approach to managing multiple distinct criteria in a more creative, two-way visual spiral, serving as a methodology essential to and associated with design work. The framework can be integrated into the concept phase of any built design project on any design scale, ranging from an “object” building to a “territory” [5], such as a watercourse landscape or a church restoration [49].
The future gaps that need to be closed entail implementing the Solar Regenerative Monad with its dyads in detailed, distinct built environments; expanding Built—new BIPV focus to Built—Heritage on a larger scale, or the integrating BUILT—new BIPV into a new energetic community; and carrying out NATURE—blue–green watercourse work.
The primary weakness of this research is the lack of technical studies, as it represents only a conceptual framework for a preliminary design that can be assumed in the subsequent stage of a more detailed technical project. The Solar Regeneration Monad related to the visual holistic framework for new study cases and associated with the detailed study cases, specifically the ENERGY dyad—agrivoltaics or micro-hydropower, needs to be studied and supported with technical studies at the detailed technical stage; the BUILT dyad related to urban development and the NATURE dyad also require further study, with the most research needed in biodiversity or biophilic urban regeneration, maintaining well-being for both wildlife and humans. The Solar Regeneration Monad with “ENERGY–BUILT–NATURE” measures is a holistic visual framework replicable in any built environment for a “built” regenerative culture that enables the identification of almost the best solution for the conservation of cultural heritage values in an “energy” transition context with “nature”, biodiversity, or other water-related issues as risks to be managed.
Author Contributions
Conceptualisation, methodology, original draft preparation, visualisation, investigation, N.-C.D.; review and supervision, A.A.; review and supervision, writing of the energy and agrivoltaic production paragraphs, R.Ş.T.; [Z-AR] and [T-BH] case studies, Aqua Prociv Proiect design team coordination, D.S.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets used in this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The case studies related to this research, the Renaturation of [Z-AR] Zerind Polder, Arad County, and the replicable case study of [T-BH] Tămaşda Polder, Bihor County, were conducted by the Aqua Prociv Proiect Company, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, and underscore the significant relevance of the team’s specific research on design [12].
Conflicts of Interest
Author Radu Stefan Tarau was employed by the company energobit control systems and Dan Sebastian Săcui was employed by the company Aqua Prociv Proiect SRL. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
[DNSH] Do No Significant Harm; [NBSs] Nature-Based Solutions; [N] Nature; [E] Energy; [B] Built; [O] Object; [L] Locality; [T] Territory; [G] Global; [S-SV] Săcuţa locality, Boroaia, Suceava county, Romania, lat. 47°31′ N, long. 26°28′ E, +423 m—residential plots, traditional landscape, ongoing natural wildening area; [Z-AR] Zerindu Mic Polder, Arad County, Romania, lat. 46°63′ N, long. 21°56′ E, +91 m, and the anthropocentric landscape also proposes regenerative measures in the current research; [T-BH] Tămaşda Polder, Bihor County, Romania, lat. 46°65′ N, long. 21°63′ E, +92 m, currently, an anthropocentric landscape, and this study serves as a replicability case in this research.
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Figure 1.
Visual holistic framework of the methodology and diagrams of dyads related to the two-way spiral/growth–degrowth process.
Figure 1.
Visual holistic framework of the methodology and diagrams of dyads related to the two-way spiral/growth–degrowth process.
Figure 2.
Visual holistic framework [5] for the methodology and diagram of the dyad Knowledge vs. Understanding. Legend: O, Object; L, Locality; T, Territory; G, Global; N, Nature; B, Built; E, Energy; growth—degrowth processes occur from a starting point, such as the polder at the locality scale.
Figure 2.
Visual holistic framework [5] for the methodology and diagram of the dyad Knowledge vs. Understanding. Legend: O, Object; L, Locality; T, Territory; G, Global; N, Nature; B, Built; E, Energy; growth—degrowth processes occur from a starting point, such as the polder at the locality scale.
Figure 3.
[S-SV] area related to C. family with ponds marked in blue colour—families with the same name and origin in the map for 2021 [23] Legend: 1. Gheorghe C.—Cad. No. 30490; 2. Ion C.—no Cad. No. 3. Ilie C. V.—pond and fountain, no Cad. No, pink colour underlined; 4. Ion C.—Cad. No. 34022; 5. Costache C.—pond, Cad. No. 34822; 6. Ion C. no Cad. No. 7. Mihai C.—pond, Cad. No. 30161; 8. Gheorghe C. V.—pond, Cad. No. 33577.
Figure 3.
[S-SV] area related to C. family with ponds marked in blue colour—families with the same name and origin in the map for 2021 [23] Legend: 1. Gheorghe C.—Cad. No. 30490; 2. Ion C.—no Cad. No. 3. Ilie C. V.—pond and fountain, no Cad. No, pink colour underlined; 4. Ion C.—Cad. No. 34022; 5. Costache C.—pond, Cad. No. 34822; 6. Ion C. no Cad. No. 7. Mihai C.—pond, Cad. No. 30161; 8. Gheorghe C. V.—pond, Cad. No. 33577.
Figure 4.
Planimetric map of [S-SV] Dițoiu, N.C.’s sketch; edited map source [24].
Figure 4.
Planimetric map of [S-SV] Dițoiu, N.C.’s sketch; edited map source [24].
Figure 5.
(a) [S-SV] Dițoiu, N.C.’s family, personal dated photos; (b) [S-SV] Dițoiu, sketch of N.C.’s sections, with the ponds and ditches marked as particular measures in a wetland landscape.
Figure 5.
(a) [S-SV] Dițoiu, N.C.’s family, personal dated photos; (b) [S-SV] Dițoiu, sketch of N.C.’s sections, with the ponds and ditches marked as particular measures in a wetland landscape.
Figure 6.
ENERGY, NATURE, and BUILT [12].
Figure 6.
ENERGY, NATURE, and BUILT [12].
Figure 7.
[Z-AR] [12] [T-BH] [12] Dițoiu, N.C.’s sketch [33] of the replicability case study; [T-BH] Tămaşda Polder, Bihor County and [Z-AR] Zerindu Polder, Arad County. Planimetric sketch of the Zerind and Tămaşda Polders. Legend: 1. watercourse; 2. polder boundary dike with an inner polder contour channel; 3. old, rehabilitated canal; 4. old pier inside the polder that was dismantled and arranged as a canal/wetland; 5. inland agricultural land for polders; and 6. biodiversity/water level digitalisation.
Figure 7.
[Z-AR] [12] [T-BH] [12] Dițoiu, N.C.’s sketch [33] of the replicability case study; [T-BH] Tămaşda Polder, Bihor County and [Z-AR] Zerindu Polder, Arad County. Planimetric sketch of the Zerind and Tămaşda Polders. Legend: 1. watercourse; 2. polder boundary dike with an inner polder contour channel; 3. old, rehabilitated canal; 4. old pier inside the polder that was dismantled and arranged as a canal/wetland; 5. inland agricultural land for polders; and 6. biodiversity/water level digitalisation.
Figure 8.
Replicability case study—[T-BH] Tămaşda Polder, Bihor County, and case study—[Z-AR] [12] [T-BH] [12] Zerindu Polder, Arad County, with the same proposed measures.
Table 1.
Criteria related to knowledge, such as 1—Technology, 2—Technical, and 3—Active, to achieve understanding through 1—Tradition, 2—Humanist, and 3—Passive.
Table 1.
Criteria related to knowledge, such as 1—Technology, 2—Technical, and 3—Active, to achieve understanding through 1—Tradition, 2—Humanist, and 3—Passive.
| Acronym | Measure↓ | LEGEND—MEASURE/SCALE | |
|---|---|---|---|
| N–O | Nature–Object | NATURE—Technology | OBJECT—plot scale |
| N–L | Nature–Locality | NATURE—Technology | LOCALITY—dam/polder scale |
| N–T | Nature–Territory | NATURE—Technology | TERRITORY—hydrologic basin scale |
| N–G (*) | Nature–Global (*) | NATURE—Tradition | GLOBAL scale (*) |
| B–O | Built–Object | BUILT—Technical | OBJECT—plot scale |
| B–L | Built–Locality | BUILT—Technical | LOCALITY—dam/polder scale |
| B–T | Built– Territory | BUILT—Technical | TERRITORY—hydrologic basin scale |
| B–G (*) | Built–Global (*) | BUILT—Humanist | GLOBAL scale (*) |
| E–O | Energy–Object | ENERGY—Active | OBJECT—plot scale |
| E–L | Energy–Locality | ENERGY—Active | LOCALITY—dam/polder scale |
| E–T | Energy–Territory | ENERGY—Active | TERRITORY—hydrologic basin scale |
| E–G (*) | Energy–Global (*) | ENERGY—Passive | GLOBAL scale (*) |
(*) The global scale is the “correct assessment”, including sine qua non design principles and the humanist aspects related to understanding.
Table 2.
The Do No Significant Harm [DNSH] [6] principle.
Table 2.
The Do No Significant Harm [DNSH] [6] principle.
| 1 | Climate change mitigation | Renewable energy production | Substantial contribution |
| 2 | Climate change adaptation | Flood protection [NBS] [2] | Substantial contribution |
| 3 | DNSH: The sustainable use and protection of water and marine resources | Polder—wetland | Substantial contribution |
| 4 | DNSH: The transition to a circular economy | Recycled materials, preserved built works | Substantial contribution |
| 5 | DNSH: Pollution prevention and control | Attention needed for materials | DNSH |
| 6 | DNSH: The protection and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystems | Wildlife corridors with biocapacity/biodiversity—wetland impact | Substantial contribution |
Table 3.
Nature 1: The new “1—Tradition” needs to be perfected after many “1—Technology” implementations on different scales in a growth–degrowth process.
Table 3.
Nature 1: The new “1—Tradition” needs to be perfected after many “1—Technology” implementations on different scales in a growth–degrowth process.
| Global Scale | Correct Assessment |
| Green | Increased biodiversity of local species measures (after issues with invasive species are mitigated) |
| Agriculture | Following the Anthropocene-specific era of industrial agriculture, locally adapted cultures are emerging for regenerative agriculture, including pesticide-free European agriculture. |
| Blue | Water management—longitudinal connectivity and transversal connectivity related to wild corridors (after Anthropocene-specific excessive hydropower measures, excessive micro-hydropower system numbers) |
| Biodiversity | Wetland areas and longitudinal watercourse connectivity (following the Anthropocene’s decreased biodiversity) |
| Soil | Soil health measures are necessary in the Anthropocene, particularly in addressing specific forms of soil degradation. |
| Related Risks | Water scarcity/risks relevant to energy production are to be evaluated. |
| Object Scale | Plot |
| Green | Increasing biocapacity/biodiversity, as well as the biophilic design of buildings [7] |
| Agriculture | Pesticide-free crop rotation, increasing biodiversity |
| Blue | Irrigation canals are needed and ponds are required. |
| Biodiversity | Increasing biodiversity measures and connectivity related to wild corridors |
| Soil | Pesticide-free crop rotation |
| Related Risks | Water footprint/energy production are to be evaluated. |
| Locality Scale | Dam/Polder |
| Green | Increasing biocapacity/biodiversity |
| Agriculture | Pesticide-free crop rotation, increasing biodiversity |
| Blue | Irrigation canals, ponds, and dams are needed, along with longitudinal connectivity and transversal connectivity related to wild corridors. |
| Biodiversity | Biodiversity improvement measures, such as meander renaturation and connectivity related to wild corridors |
| Soil | Pesticide-free crop rotation in an agricultural community |
| Related Risks | Water footprint/energy production are to be evaluated. |
| Territory Scale | Hydrological Basin |
| Green | Increasing biocapacity/biodiversity |
| Agriculture | Pesticide-free crop rotation, increasing biodiversity |
| Blue | Wetland areas, dams needed, longitudinal connectivity and transversal connectivity related to wild corridors are needed. |
| Biodiversity | Increasing biodiversity measures for local species and connectivity related to wild corridors |
| Soil | Soil health improvement measures |
| Related Risks | Water scarcity, biodiversity issues, and energy production need to be evaluated. |
Table 4.
BUILT 2—The new “2—Humanist” needs more “2—Technical” accomplishments, which are often repeated in the same growth–degrowth process.
Table 4.
BUILT 2—The new “2—Humanist” needs more “2—Technical” accomplishments, which are often repeated in the same growth–degrowth process.
| Global Scale | Correct Assessment |
| Recyclable | The existing built environment that supports PV systems |
| Heritage Value | Revitalising the traditional household after vernacular heritage-specific degradation in the Anthropocene |
| Cultural Landscape | Revitalising the cultural landscape after a possible Anthropocene-specific degradation |
| Social | Traditional agricultural plots for energy communities and agrarian communities: circular metabolism [8] |
| Degrowth | Revitalising an intangible heritage through measures specific to traditional culture encompasses daily life routines that follow the circadian cycle and agricultural activities that follow the lunar cycle. |
| Related Risks | Risks relevant to energy production and cultural heritage are to be evaluated. |
| Object Scale | Plot |
| Recyclable | Built environment rehabilitation—photovoltaic support |
| Heritage Value | Cultural landscape preserved on traditional plots with particular heritage elements, such as fences or other structures |
| Cultural Landscape | Traditional landscape design |
| Social | Social impact of agrarian/energy communities |
| Degrowth | Agrarian/energy communities according to a traditional design |
| Related Risks | Risk of aggressive intervention in the cultural landscape and cultural heritage |
| Locality Scale | Dam/Polder related to flood risks in a rural/urban locality |
| Recyclable | Circular metabolism on a large scale, such as a metropolitan/basin scale [8] |
| Heritage Value | Industrial dams—evaluated as industrial/technical heritage value |
| Cultural Landscape | Cultural heritage preservation |
| Social | Evaluation of human-centred measures of large-scale, infrastructure interventions with social impact |
| Degrowth | Degrowth and interconnectivity in large-scale infrastructure interventions |
| Related Risks | Energy production, biodiversity and cultural heritage are to be evaluated. |
| Territory Scale | Metropolitan Area, Hydrological Basin |
| Recyclable | Heritage preservation as a circular economy measure |
| Heritage Value | Heritage studies, thematic heritage visit route, basinal scale |
| Cultural Landscape | Cultural landscape studies |
| Social | Circular metabolism [8] and energy/agrarian communities |
| Degrowth | Heritage preservation as a degrowth measure |
| Related Risks | Biodiversity issues, energy production, and cultural heritage are to be evaluated. |
Table 5.
ENERGY 3—The new “3—Passive” achievement is achieved through an optimal “3—Active” process after a growth–degrowth process.
Table 5.
ENERGY 3—The new “3—Passive” achievement is achieved through an optimal “3—Active” process after a growth–degrowth process.
| Global Scale | Correct Assessment |
| Carbon Footprint | Carbon sequestration through nature-based solutions |
| Water Footprint | Related to hydrogen production and hydropower production |
| Renewable Energy | Agrivoltaics, translucent solar panels or spaced bifacial panels on irrigation canals for micro-hydropower that is fish-friendly |
| Energy Consumption | Hydrogen production, built environment consumption |
| Related Risks | Risks related to water, energy, built, and biodiversity |
| Object Scale | Plot |
| Carbon Footprint | The carbon footprint and carbon storage of the plot are to be assessed. |
| Water Footprint | Irrigation needed |
| Renewable Energy | PV production is to be assessed. |
| Energy Consumption | Irrigation pump consumption and hydrogen consumption are to be evaluated. |
| Related Risks | Risks related to water, biodiversity issues, energy, and built |
| Locality Scale | Dam/Polder |
| Carbon Footprint | Carbon footprint and carbon storage are to be assessed. |
| Water Footprint | Hydrogen and hydropower production are to be evaluated. Irrigation is needed for the biodiversity of the wetland. |
| Renewable Energy | Hydrogen and PV production are to be assessed. |
| Energy Consumption | Irrigation pump consumption and consumption in hydrogen production are to be evaluated. |
| Related Risks | Risks related to water, biodiversity issues, energy, and built |
| Territory Scale | Hydrological Basin |
| Carbon Footprint | Carbon storage is to be assessed. |
| Water Footprint | Hydrogen and hydropower production, as well as other water-consuming processes, need to be evaluated. |
| Renewable Energy | Production and potential production are to be assessed. |
| Energy Consumption | Consumers/potential consumers |
| Related Risks | Risks related to water, biodiversity issues, energy, and built |
Table 6.
Biodiversity and carbon sequestration [25].
Table 6.
Biodiversity and carbon sequestration [25].
| Carbon Sequestration (Tons of Carbon per year) | Boreal Forest | Temperate Forest | Temperate Grassland | Tropical Forest | Desert Land/Semi-Desert Land | Tundra | Wetland | Tropical Savannas | Croplands |
| Surface (ha) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Vegetation Carbon Sequestration | 64 | 120 | 7 | 120 | 2 | 6 | 43 | 29 | 2 |
| Soil Carbon Sequestration | 344 | 123 | 236 | 123 | 42 | 127 | 643 | 117 | 80 |
| Overall Carbon Sequestration | 408 | 243 | 243 | 243 | 44 | 133 | 686 | 146 | 82 |
Table 7.
Energy production, consumption, and storage.
| PRODUCTION [29] | CONSUMPTION AND STORAGE [29] |
| Solar photovoltaics covering irrigation canals for energy production Agrivoltaic energy production | Solar energy consumption for green hydrogen production Hydrogen production as energy consumption |
| |
Table 8.
Evaluation with a similar SWOT method.
| Strengths | Weaknesses |
|---|---|
Technical:
| Technical:
|
| Opportunities | Threats |
Technical:
| Technical:
|
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Diţoiu, N.-C.; Abdulamit, A.; Tărău, R.Ş.; Săcui, D.S. Desirable Small-Scale Solar Power Production in a Global Context: Local Tradition-Inspired Solutions to Global Issues. Solar 2025, 5, 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5040047
AMA Style
Diţoiu N-C, Abdulamit A, Tărău RŞ, Săcui DS. Desirable Small-Scale Solar Power Production in a Global Context: Local Tradition-Inspired Solutions to Global Issues. Solar. 2025; 5(4):47. https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5040047
Chicago/Turabian StyleDiţoiu, Nina-Cristina, Altan Abdulamit, Radu Ştefan Tărău, and Dan Sebastian Săcui. 2025. "Desirable Small-Scale Solar Power Production in a Global Context: Local Tradition-Inspired Solutions to Global Issues" Solar 5, no. 4: 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5040047
APA StyleDiţoiu, N.-C., Abdulamit, A., Tărău, R. Ş., & Săcui, D. S. (2025). Desirable Small-Scale Solar Power Production in a Global Context: Local Tradition-Inspired Solutions to Global Issues. Solar, 5(4), 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/solar5040047
