Breaking the Traffic Code: How MaaS Is Shaping Sustainable Mobility Ecosystems

Abstract

Urban areas are facing increasing traffic congestion, pollution, and infrastructure strain. Traditional urban transportation systems are often fragmented. They require users to plan, pay, and travel across multiple disconnected services. Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) integrates these services into a single digital platform, simplifying access and improving the user experience. This review critically examines the role of MaaS in fostering sustainable mobility ecosystems. MaaS aims to enhance user-friendliness, service variety, and sustainability by adopting a customer-centric approach to transportation. The findings reveal that successful MaaS systems consistently align with multimodal transport infrastructure, equitable access policies, and strong public-private partnerships. MaaS enhances the management of routes and traffic, effectively mitigating delays and congestion while concurrently reducing energy consumption and fuel usage. In this study, the authors examine MaaS as a new mobility paradigm for a sustainable transportation system in smart cities, observing the challenges and opportunities associated with its implementation. To assess the environmental impact, a sustainability index is calculated based on the use of different modes of transportation. Significant findings indicate that MaaS systems are proliferating in both quantity and complexity, increasingly integrating capabilities such as real-time multimodal planning, dynamic pricing, and personalized user profiles.

1. Introduction

The emergence of smart cities has had a significant influence on mobility. The issue of urban mobility holds significant importance in contemporary societies. The expansion of this industry is inevitable due to the emergence of new digital platforms, specialized mobile applications, and business models within the sharing economy. These developments stress the concepts of sharing and access, shifting the focus away from ownership. Examples of such shifts may be observed in mobility sharing and MaaS. The adoption of an intermodal mobility management approach can facilitate and expedite the proliferation of transportation systems that are both sustainable and efficient. The main objective of this study is to examine the present condition of smart mobility and the factors that can impact the extent and scope of the adoption of modern sharing mobility facilitated by information and communication technology (ICT) applications. The implementation of MaaS is essential for the effective functioning of smart cities. The research question is “How is MaaS shaping sustainable mobility ecosystems?” Autonomous vehicles are introducing novel modes of personal transportation within intelligent urban environments. Furthermore, the term MaaS pertains to a novel strategy for personal transportation [1].

At some point, individuals have found themselves compelled to communicate with their employer to express regret for their delay in arriving at work, which was caused by deficiencies in public transit. The negative impact on mobility services in urban areas is caused by inadequate traffic management due to the rise in public vehicles. The introduction of MaaS by smart city leaders has effectively resolved this matter. MaaS has the potential to aid those who lack certainty regarding the optimal commuting path to and from their workplace [2]. According to Statista [3], the urban landscape has seen transformations in terms of mobility due to the proliferation of MaaS platforms, shared automobiles, and other advancements in transportation technology. It is projected that the global MaaS sector will exceed a value of 230 billion US dollars by the year 2025 (Figure 1) [3].

Figure 1. MaaS market size worldwide between 2017 and 2025.

MaaS offers travelers an optimal route and transportation method tailored to their requirements through efficient public transportation and active mobility options. In addition, it offers an efficient platform for booking and financial transactions related to transportation services. To assert that the transformation of the travel sector by MaaS is significant would be an understatement [4]. Due to the highly favorable outcomes observed, financial resources have been allocated to expand MaaS on a larger scale. However, business organizations and political bodies are interested in putting MaaS into practice, specifically regarding its impact on encouraging environmentally friendly forms of transportation. Figure 2 shows MaaS vs. smart mobility.

Figure 2. Smart mobility vs. MaaS.

The primary objectives of this research are to 1. Assess the MaaS transformative impact on urban transportation systems and sustainability outcomes. 2. Analyze year-wise implementation trends of MaaS applications. Collect and interpret data on MaaS deployment across different cities and years to understand adoption patterns and technological progression. 3. Quantify MaaS adoption relative to total transportation applications. Compare MaaS-specific implementations to the broader set of intelligent transportation applications to evaluate their penetration and significance in the smart mobility ecosystem. 4. Develop a mathematical model to evaluate the sustainability index to quantify the environmental, economic, and social benefits of MaaS, based on different modes of transport and user behavior. 5. Identify challenges and opportunities in MaaS integration.

The scope of the study includes: 1. Temporal Scope: this study covers MaaS implementation trends over a multi-year timeline, allowing for analysis of its evolution and scalability in urban settings. 2. Geographical Scope: the research focuses primarily on urban environments globally, from leading MaaS-adopting cities. 3. Analytical Scope: this study involves both quantitative and qualitative analysis, including year-wise application tracking and sustainability index computation.

1.1. Why MaaS Is the Future of Transportation

The benefits of offering transportation as a service are readily apparent. Technological advancements have brought about significant transformations in urban navigation methods [5]. The advent of ridesharing programs, vehicle-sharing sites, navigation apps, and the emergence of autonomous vehicles have significantly facilitated transportation between two destinations, making it more convenient. However, what alternatives are available if a single provider fails to meet your needs adequately? If one lacks the willingness to exert substantial effort in their investigation, it is quite probable that they will not achieve optimal outcomes. Consequently, the concept of MaaS was developed [6].

MaaS refers to the conceptual framework that aims to offer on-demand transportation services to individuals as and when needed [7]. MaaS companies offer diverse transportation alternatives that cater to the user’s convenience, unlike the traditional car ownership and operation model. Maas facilitates convenient access to a diverse range of transportation alternatives for navigating urban environments, similar to the user-friendly platforms offered by Netflix and Spotify that enable seamless consumption of a vast array of audiovisual content. MaaS solutions have become accessible through many platforms, including ridesharing applications such as Uber, peer-to-peer automobile rental markets such as GoGet and FlexiCar, and micro-mobility enterprises such as Lime Scooters and Jump Bikes [8].

1.2. What Issue Is MaaS Trying to Solve?

Based on data provided by the United Nations, it is projected that by the year 2050, around 68% of the global population will reside in urban areas [9]. Consequently, enhancing our transportation infrastructure is compounded by the inherent challenge of the gradual depreciation of our road networks. The regrettable truth remains that, regardless of the quantity of newly constructed roadways, the capacity to accommodate additional vehicles concurrently will forever remain unattainable.

The concept of MaaS offers a solution to the concerns associated with personal car ownership. It is not widespread for individuals to independently commute to and from their workplaces. If presented with the possibility, individuals may opt to utilize public transit to commute to and from their workplace. If these entities are strategically located close to essential amenities, their value will be further enhanced. Consequently, possessing a predominantly idle automobile within a garage is not strictly indispensable. When individuals do not consistently necessitate a personal vehicle, they can avail themselves of a peer-to-peer rental service, enabling them to borrow an automobile from another individual temporarily. Consequently, there would be a reduction in the number of vehicles on the road [10,11,12,13].

1.3. Advantages of MaaS Implementation in Smart Cities

There are several advantages associated with MaaS. Firstly, MaaS offers increased convenience and flexibility to users by integrating several transportation modes into a single platform. The implementation of the MaaS idea has the potential to benefit the transportation sector significantly [14,15].

1.3.1. MaaS in Automobiles

The utilization of MaaS platforms can facilitate a decrease in the overall volume of automobiles on roadways [16,17]. Their autos will remain inactive unless one desires to allocate much of their time to vehicular transportation. If one chooses to store their automobile in an employee garage or lot, there is a possibility that it may remain unused indefinitely. The increased demand for transportation in a city calls for a reduction in the number of cars on the road. In addition, there is now the advantage of reduced parking fees and a more advantageous parking site.

1.3.2. The Potential for Recovering Investment Expenses

Not all individuals will possess the capacity to transition to a MaaS framework expeditiously. Some continue to rely on personal automobiles. However, customers have the option to utilize MaaS services as a means to offset the expenses related to car upkeep partially. The peer-to-peer (P2P) model refers to a decentralized network architecture where participants who utilize MaaS rental services can lease their underutilized automobiles, similar to renting out a vacation property during periods of non-occupancy [18].

1.3.3. The Allocation of Funds Towards Developing and Maintaining Public Transit Networks

If governments fail to consistently provide funds towards expanding their road infrastructure, those funds could be redirected towards enhancing public transit systems. Increased financial resources can potentially lead to enhanced service provision in terms of speed, frequency, and reliability, benefiting more individuals and ensuring better dependability for the end consumer.

1.3.4. Minimize the Expenses Incurred by Individual Customers

Acquiring a loan, completing the car registration process, securing insurance coverage, doing regular maintenance, and providing gasoline are among the principal expenses linked to the ownership of an automobile. Despite the distribution of expenditures across the vehicle’s lifespan, they accumulate rapidly. In contrast, the cost of renting a car or utilizing a ridesharing service seems to be comparatively less expensive.

1.3.5. MaaS for Businesses

The utilization of MaaS can provide businesses and their fleets with certain advantages that were previously unrecognized. Organizations can optimize their vehicle fleets through the utilization of MaaS [19].

1.3.6. Minimizing the Risk to Fleet Operations

It is widely acknowledged that managing a fleet and ensuring the operational efficiency of vehicles within the constraints of a limited budget can provide significant challenges for managers. In contrast, fleet managers can mitigate vehicle acquisition and upkeep risks through the adaptable MaaS transportation model. Business enterprises can attain this objective by implementing a strategy that minimizes the number of vehicles within their operational fleet. When a firm possesses a reduced number of vehicles, it results in a decrease in insurance expenses as well as a diminished probability of traffic violations and accidents.

1.3.7. Optimize the Utilization of the Fleet’s Resources

Emerging methodologies for acquiring data on the expenses associated with a company’s fleet assets are also evident. On weekends and holidays, several fleet managers make their vehicles accessible to the public. Over time, this approach may assist firms in recovering the costs associated with fleet maintenance.

1.3.8. Methods for Reaching the Destination

Due to the implementation of MaaS, enterprises can offer several transportation alternatives to their workforce. Employees can utilize an internet-based platform to coordinate their travel arrangements. Through this portal, they are provided with choices tailored to their tastes. Several methods are available to achieve this objective, such as utilizing public transportation, engaging in carpooling, opting for scooter or electric bike rentals, or adopting the practice of walking. It has the potential to decrease transportation expenses per worker for enterprises.

1.4. Potential Risks of MaaS

1.4.1. Service Disruptions

Technical issues, cyberattacks, or downtime may leave users stranded.

1.4.2. Monopolization

Over-reliance on a few MaaS providers could lead to higher costs and reduced quality due to decreased competition.

1.4.3. Exclusion of Non-Digital Users

Individuals without smartphones or internet access may face exclusion, creating accessibility challenges.

1.5. Key Contributions

• The study provides a year-wise analysis of MaaS application deployment from 2004 to 2025, offering empirical insights into the growing share of MaaS solutions relative to total mobility applications worldwide.
• Evaluate the sustainability index: a novel evaluative mathematical framework is introduced to assess the sustainability index and implemented using Python (Python 3 and Python 2.7) code.
• This study identifies the challenges in the realm of MaaS and highlights the opportunities.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 of this study presents the MaaS framework. The aim is to support the development of MaaS policies, encompassing transportation facilities and services in smart city transportation systems. The objective is to enhance the efficient usage of resources in the context of an Intelligent Transportation System. Section 3 provides an overview of the related works. Section 4 presents an analysis and evaluation of MaaS services. Section 5 discusses the challenges and opportunities explored in establishing long-term MaaS services. The concluding section presents a comprehensive overview of our findings and offers our research perspectives.

2. MaaS Framework

To ensure the effective operation of MaaS, travelers, aggregators, and service providers must engage in collaborative efforts [20,21]. The primary function of an aggregator is to gather pertinent data and provide a framework for creating and advancing applications connected to mobility. The life cycle and ecosystem of MaaS are influenced by three key actors: commuters, aggregators, and service providers. The initial stage in the MaaS ecosystem involves data collection, with the intention of offering personalized mobility services to users. Internet of Things (IoT) devices are valuable for acquiring this data. The IoT can gather data about travel patterns, modes of transportation, and payment methods. Figure 3 represents the MaaS model. The sustainability index can be calculated by Equation (1).

Figure 3. MaaS model.

2.1. Mathematical Model

Consider the following key components of the sustainable mobility ecosystems.

• Users (U): they can make travel decisions based on cost, convenience, and time.
• Modes (M): transportation mode can be public transit, private car, bike, ride-share, etc.
• Service Platforms (MaaS): integrate services into a single digital interface.
• Infrastructure (roads, lanes, etc.).
• Environmental Factors (emissions, congestion).
• Cost Function (C).

Mathematically, we can define the system as follows:

• U(n): number of users choosing the mode of transportation.
• M = {1,2,3…..,n}: mobility options such as bus, car, bike, etc.
• C(Un): the cost function depends on service quality and road congestion.
• Pn: proportion of travelers choosing the mode n.
• Sn: sustainability index
• En: emissions per user for mode n.
• Tn: average travel time for mode n
• Fn: user preference factor (price, comfort, availability)

Let the total number of users be N, then:

U(n) = Pn.N

Tn = t(1 + α(Un/Kn)

where Kn is the capacity of mode n.

$$Sn=w1\left(1-{\displaystyle \frac{\sum UnEn}{N Emax}}\right)+w1\left(1-{\displaystyle \frac{\sum UnTn}{N Tmax}}\right)$$

(1)

where Emax is the worst-case emissions and Tmax is the worst-case transmission delay.

2.2. Data Collection

Furthermore, devices can gather data about preexisting infrastructure, including but not limited to electric vehicle charging stations, parking facilities, road conditions, and traffic flow. Using data analysis facilitates the ability of MaaS providers and aggregators to enhance mobility options for their customers [22,23,24]. Service providers can suggest the optimal mode of transportation and the most efficient route for individual customers by utilizing data obtained from IoT devices. Using infrastructure-related data can enhance the ability to address commuters’ dynamic transportation demands and supply requirements effectively. Once the data has been gathered, aggregators can utilize blockchain technology to develop platforms and applications that serve as commuter user interfaces. These interfaces allow users to choose from a range of complete travel options. It is plausible that in the future, service providers might potentially consolidate into a unified platform utilizing distributed ledger technology to enhance the quality of service provided to their clientele.

2.3. Smart Mobility

Smart mobility system refers to advanced and intricate means of transportation and mobility. Smart mobility involves reimagining and restructuring the transportation infrastructure often employed in personal and professional contexts, aiming to integrate different elements of technology and mobility [25]. This paper discusses various modes of transportation, including emerging options such as carsharing programs and on-demand ridesharing services such as Uber and Careem, as well as conventional means such as private autos, electric vehicles, and public transportation networks. The shift is being accelerated by developments in consumer behavior, including the decline in private car ownership and the emergence of novel mobility alternatives. The rapid adoption of this concept in the fleet market in recent years can be attributed to various factors, including concerns about pollution, traffic congestion, lost productivity, and financial implications. The smart mobility ecosystem encompasses a range of transportation modes, such as conventional gas and electric vehicles, bike and scooter share programs, autonomous vehicles, rail lines, and augmented traffic realities. Figure 4 shows MaaS in smart cities.

Figure 4. MaaS in smart cities.

2.4. Sharing Mobility

A commuter, for instance, may choose to utilize a bicycle to reach point S before transitioning to an automobile. Commuters utilizing a MaaS platform based on blockchain technology can reserve a car and a bicycle through a unified application, regardless of whether the same entity or distinct organizations provide these services. In this scenario, it is noteworthy that the passenger’s itinerary will be distributed among two service providers. However, it is essential to highlight that these providers will not be granted access to the personal information of the commuter. Due to the immutability of blockchain data, service providers can ascertain the termination of the user’s requirement for the bicycle at site S. To facilitate a seamless exchange of bikes. Service providers can identify another commuter who requires transportation from point S to point T via bicycle and subsequently communicate this information to both riders.

2.5. Payment Solution

MaaS suppliers offer a range of payment solutions to facilitate uncomplicated and secure financial transactions between customers and organizations [26]. Implementing IoT in payment systems has the potential to enhance the security of financial transactions.

3. Related Works

The utilization of MaaS by the government can be seen as a strategic approach to address mobility and environmental sustainability concerns. Using MaaS over an extended period would reduce the number of car journeys [27]. The reduction in the number of cars on the road would result in a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions. When appropriately utilized, MaaS can encourage more people to choose alternative modes of commuting, such as carpooling and ridesharing. Due to the advantages they offer, an increasing number of people will commence utilizing ridesharing services. Based on available findings, it is suggested that MaaS holds promise in promoting transportation modes that require fewer resources. The advent of autonomous vehicles operated by AI can profoundly revolutionize the taxi sector. The rise in popularity of ride-hailing services has led to increased car occupancy rates. Table 1 represents the contributions and limitations of related works.

Table 1. The contributions and limitations of related works.

Ref.	Contribution	Limitation	Year
[28]	The authors present the MaaS and describe the framework of MaaS.	The authors only considered MaaS without observing the challenges in its implementation.	2016
[29]	The authors present the challenges of implementation and the policies required for MaaS.	The authors only considered the challenges in MaaS implementation without giving the framework.	2017
[30]	The authors present the MaaS in rural regions.	The authors only considered the MaaS implementation in rural areas; however, it is more needed in urban areas.	2018
[31]	The authors present the potential of MaaS bundles as a mobility management tool.	The authors only considered the implementation of MaaS without providing the framework.	2019
[32]	The authors present an understanding of MaaS and its past, present, and future.	The authors only provided an overview of MaaS without giving the framework.	2020
[33]	The authors present the MaaS and private car use based on the Sydney MaaS trial project.	The authors only considered the MaaS and private car use without providing a framework to cover all transportation.	2021
[34]	The authors present the models for supporting MaaS.	The authors only considered the MaaS models without providing the framework and challenges.	2022
[35]	The authors present a model of the effect of MaaS on mode choice decisions.	The authors only considered the impact of MaaS implementation on mode choice decisions without providing a framework for demand.	2022
[36]	The authors present the new frontiers for sustainable mobility: MaaS.	The authors only considered MaaS implementation for sustainable mobility without providing a framework.	2023
[37]	The authors present the shared mobility services toward MaaS.	The authors only considered the shared mobility services toward MaaS without providing the framework and implementation challenges.	2023
[38]	The authors present the MaaS and the role of multimodality in the sustainability of urban mobility in both developing and developed countries.	The authors have not presented a specific roadmap for implementing MaaS in developing countries.	2024
[39]	The authors have focused on smart mobility adoption in sustainable smart cities to establish a growing ecosystem.	The authors have not presented the MaaS implementations.	2024
[40]	The authors have presented a review of transportation 5.0, focusing on advancing sustainable mobility through intelligent technology and renewable energy.	The authors have not presented MaaS implementations.	2025

However, these apps also provide commuters with a convenient and cost-effective mode of transportation between two points. To facilitate the provision of MaaS, travel service firms are required to make necessary adjustments to their operational strategies. The proliferation of MaaS offerings has prompted significant transformations within the smart city transportation system, leading to the following subsequent alterations:

3.1. An Increase Occurring in Quick and Consecutive Intervals

In response to the emergence of MaaS, numerous firms are enhancing their travel offerings for clientele as prominent players in the mobility sector. Uber and Lyft are placing their hopes on electric scooters as a potential solution to address the challenges associated with last-mile transportation. Electric scooters have emerged as a viable means of transportation for short and frequent trips in urban areas, primarily owing to their ability to mitigate traffic congestion [41,42].

3.2. There Is a Heightened Focus on the Utilization of Open Data

The success of MaaS hinges upon the crucial factors of interoperability and open data. The adoption of the IoT and blockchain technologies in the mobility sector has increased due to the growing emphasis on interoperability and open data. The enhancement of communication between commuters and service providers, in the context of cell phones and automobiles can be achieved by utilizing IoT devices. In the foreseeable future, the utilization of blockchain technology is expected to enhance the level of data transparency. Providing readily available information is expected to increase the likelihood of commuters utilizing MaaS solutions.

3.3. Increased the Number of Autonomous Vehicles

The advancement toward shared mobility is facilitated by integrating AI-based autonomous cars with Internet of Things devices, enhancing the efficiency and intelligence of transportation systems. Incorporating several technologies into the MaaS framework will provide a transportation system characterized by reduced congestion and fewer accidents, aligning with the shared objective of AI-enabled autonomous vehicles [43,44,45]. Government-business collaboration is experiencing growth due to the emergence of MaaS. The opportunity exists for fostering collaboration between the public and private sectors, a necessary component for achieving network parity and effectively addressing the needs of commuters. In response to automakers’ increasing production of electric vehicles, governments are implementing initiatives to expand the availability of electric vehicle charging infrastructure.

The imminent arrival of a new era of mobility is readily apparent, yet the question remains as to whether we are adequately equipped to embrace this transformative shift. Rather than passively awaiting the occurrence of a revolution, urban planners and transportation authorities can influence the trajectory of societal trends proactively and expeditiously. Concerning the travel sector, MaaS represents a promising approach. The progression of the transportation industry has the potential to aid service providers in maintaining their competitiveness and profitability, all while effectively addressing the demands of commuters.

This ecosystem also involves prioritizing specific modes of transportation during different times of the day. The rising popularity of fleet management software in the transportation industry is accompanied by its underlying principles of intelligent mobility, encompassing enhanced integration, automation, safety, efficiency, and sustainability. These principles align with a novel benchmark for routine business operations. Telematics standards enable businesses to optimize their financial performance by monitoring driver information and implementing strategies to minimize fuel consumption. Conventional transportation methods, such as same-day delivery and status reporting, have been supplanted by a paradigm characterized by comprehensive transparency, openness, and excessive communication. While numerous business proprietors depend on established customer service strategies, the concept of “above and beyond” assistance is expanding at a parallel pace with technological advancements that drive contemporary business operations. This case study examines how a particular organization enhanced customer interactions and gained a competitive edge with a strategic emphasis on precision in arrival time. In terms of enhanced efficiency, smart mobility can yield substantial benefits for various enterprises operating in various industries. If there were a reduction in traffic congestion, it is plausible that the timing of deliveries and arrivals could be more accurately coordinated. The reduction in the number of autos on the road and the improvement in visibility contribute to a decrease in congestion and an improvement in driving safety [46,47]. The implementation of smart mobility services would yield economic benefits through increased efficiency. The mitigation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and the reduction of pollution would have favorable outcomes for the environment and enhance the overall quality of life for urban dwellers. The rate of technological capabilities is increasing exponentially. The quantification of technology’s impact on business remains elusive. In the present circumstances, business proprietors neglect to adjust to the potential consequences of not only forfeiting their customer base but also jeopardizing their ability to generate income. It is highly improbable that individuals who utilize technology would possess a comprehensive understanding of the long-term implications of developing technologies on their everyday lives and professional environments in the foreseeable future.

3.4. Some Examples of Smart Cities Where MaaS Is Implemented

Data accessibility is critical in transportation law across North America, Europe, and other countries. Europe aims to promote ecologically friendly, technologically sophisticated, and economically feasible travel options for its citizens. The advancement of digital technology and innovation has introduced a new era of mobility, wherein MaaS will increasingly assume a significant role. We discussed three cities that successfully implemented MaaS to advocate for sustainable, eco-friendly, and interconnected forms of transportation.

3.4.1. Helsinki, Finland

Helsinki, the capital of Finland, was at the forefront of meeting the demands and desires of its citizens. The Whim application developed by MaaS Global aids passengers in prearranging their travel schedules. Whim enables the provision of MaaS. Tourists in Helsinki can utilize the application to organize their excursions strategically through taxi, metro, rail, bus, vehicle, or bicycle. A multifaceted application that amalgamates the merits of many others to bestow rewards upon its users. The primary function of Whim is to assist users in finding stations and automobiles, verifying their availability, and organizing their transit itineraries. Pre-book, acquire, and authenticate tickets, tours, and annual passes for all modes of transportation. We offer a range of programs at different price ranges to cater to the needs of all individuals. Users input their destination, and the program will generate the fastest and most convenient routes to get there. Whim provides its users with an electronic ticket for their travel in the form of a QR code. This platform has the potential to be advantageous for Helsinki. Although the monthly subscription fee amounts to 499 €, granting unrestricted access to all transport modes, the city is delighted to have initiated this mobility service plan. It mitigates pollutants and alleviates traffic congestion in the capital of Finland.

3.4.2. Vienna, Austria

Green transit is of utmost importance in Vienna. Bicycle lanes have been implemented across the city to promote increased bicycle usage. The city’s central area is designated as a pedestrian zone to prioritize the needs and comfort of people. Residents characterize the electric public transit system as secure, reliable, and meticulously maintained. Wien Mobil, a company specializing in MaaS and upstream mobility, was established in June 2017 by the collaboration of Vienna and Wiener Linien. The Vienna Mobile app is called Vienna MaaS. This program facilitates the discovery of various mobility options, such as accessible taxis, scooters, self-serve bicycles, vehicle sharing, public transportation, and parking lots. Utilizing Wien Mobil, users may efficiently arrange their holiday by utilizing a diverse range of mobility options. Additionally, it has the option to procure tickets beforehand through the programs. The app is constructed on a publicly accessible multimodal platform, granting complete authority over the interface utilized by any transportation service provider. Wien Mobil manages phone calls and requests a taxi at any desired moment. All encountered delays during the voyage are also shown. Approximately one-third of Vienna’s population utilizes this application.

3.4.3. Hanover, Germany

The Mobilatsshop, or Mobility Shop, is a MaaS application created in 2016 by the GVH transport authority and a public transport operator named Ustra. Users can utilize this system to avail themselves of a diverse range of taxi services, car-sharing schemes, and public transit alternatives. This program aims to identify and compute the most efficient routes by utilizing all available public transport modes within a specified urban area. Transportation alternatives include cycling, utilizing public buses, hiring a taxi, using Uber, riding a scooter, or renting a vehicle. The Mobility Shop app offers a wide range of transport alternatives and allows for in-app purchases, making it easy to organize journeys. The underlying principle behind ridesharing and taxi services was that service providers should be duly compensated. Indeed, the app was exclusively accessible to people with a valid public transport annual pass.

3.5. Smart Mobility Services

Some instances of intelligent mobility services are public transportation systems that offer real-time schedule updates, route optimization, stress-free travel experiences, and digital ticketing options. Additionally, sharing transportation services can be included in this category. Neom City, Saudi Arabia, is an example of where the smart mobility service will be implemented in the future. To effectively manage the challenges posed by growing populations and increasing traffic, it is imperative to prioritize utilizing big data as a catalyst for innovation [48]. The paradigm shift by NEOM will transform the interplay between humans, nature, and technology. Walking and biking are significant in promoting human-centered urban planning, fostering the development of transportation innovation, and establishing a comprehensive, sustainable mobility ecosystem. The interconnected nature of contemporary work is deeply ingrained in how fleets and drivers carry out their responsibilities continuously. As governmental regulations pertaining to compliance become increasingly rigorous, in tandem with escalating client expectations, business proprietors actively seek automobile technologies and solutions that offer comprehensive functionality inside a unified and user-centric framework, augmenting their financial performance. There are two potential benefits of integrating smart mobility solutions with urban infrastructure, including public transit networks and traffic data. Firstly, such integration can streamline urban economies that heavily depend on efficient urban transportation to stimulate commercial activities. Secondly, it can enhance road safety greatly. The implementation of vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication systems enables the timely transmission of information to commuters and drivers via network connections. This technology utilizes ultrasonic, radar, and video technologies to proactively detect and prevent potentially hazardous situations before drivers become visually aware of them. The fuel efficiency of automobiles is enhanced due to their reduced use of gasoline during sudden acceleration and deceleration. With the advancement of these technologies, the potential for the realization of self-driving automobiles and smart cities capable of detecting and mitigating hazards on our behalf increases. Irrespective of the extent to which a paradigm shift in transportation methods is anticipated, smart mobility’s emergence has substantially influenced fleets’ operations and management. This impact has been particularly notable in recent years. The increasing capabilities of car tracking have led to a corresponding rise in consumer expectations. The implementation of vehicle and cargo monitoring, the promotion of safe driving practices, and the utilization of comprehensive platforms for intelligent data compilation are anticipated. The expansion of smart cities necessitates that fleets equipped with outdated mobility technology encounter difficulties competing within a data-driven market [49,50,51,52]. It is primarily due to new highways and the imposition of stricter pollution and efficiency standards, which restrict the operation of cars that fail to fulfill these requirements.

3.5.1. Mobility on Demand

The term MOD is an abbreviation commonly used to refer to “mobility on demand” which pertains to the provision of fully autonomous public transportation services and intelligent transportation solutions to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in logistics and shipping [53]. The significance of drone technology and its ability to operate at low altitudes should not be underestimated.

3.5.2. The Concept of MaaS Refers to the Provision of Transportation

MaaS facilitates smooth transitions between various forms of transportation by providing user-centric travel information and services such as navigation, location assistance, booking, and payment functionalities. The implementation of mobility on demand (MOD) has the potential to decrease the necessity for personal automobile ownership while offering convenient access to a wide range of transportation alternatives. Also, MOD can help distribute the substantial upfront expenses of transitioning to an electric vehicle-centered mobility framework. As mentioned previously, the car fulfils a supplementary role within the context of smart mobility, mainly when there is no necessity for individual car ownership [54]. Implementing integrated mobility-on-demand services can yield advantages in two key areas: facilitating a shift in transportation preferences towards public modes and addressing the geographical inefficiencies associated with private transportation.

3.5.3. Smart Transportation

Smart transportation systems can be installed in vehicles. The potential application of smart mobility can be exemplified in the subsequent contexts: In contemporary urban settings, traffic light systems can autonomously adjust operations using advanced algorithms and real-time data. This technological approach aims to enhance overall efficiency and minimize the duration of vehicle waiting periods. The concept of smart mobility is predicated upon transforming public transportation systems. The potential enhancement of public transportation systems lies in utilizing real-time data and intelligent infrastructure, leading to increased efficiency and improved user experience.

3.5.4. Motivating the Adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs)

The rapid proliferation of electric vehicles (EVs) is closely intertwined with the development and implementation of intelligent transportation systems. Metropolitan areas are increasingly adopting electric vehicles (EVs) as part of their public transportation plans, which contributes to reducing their carbon footprint and promoting sustainable mobility [55,56,57].

Within the realm of transportation, the concept of the MaaS platform enables individuals to conveniently avail themselves of many mobility options, including bicycle rentals and ridesharing services. The utilization of practical intelligence in municipal transportation represents a promising prospect for the future. There is a growing need for attention to be directed towards smart mobility due to its ability to mitigate noise and air pollution and contribute to promoting environmental sustainability. This proposal presents a potential solution to the persistent congestion issue on urban road networks. The progression of intelligent transportation technology is anticipated to foster the growth of the smart mobility industry, thereby creating more prospects for employment and research. There exists variability among smart mobility options. There is a need to realign the system towards low-carbon options. The fundamental elements for establishing a successful MaaS system, which integrates private and public mobility providers, encompass a robust transportation network, effective public transit, unrestricted data accessibility, a well-defined legal structure, and stakeholder consensus. In some geographical regions, novel transportation methods such as shared bicycles and scooters are being implemented to reduce hassles experienced by residents while simultaneously enhancing their safety [58,59].

Moreover, this regulation presents a potential avenue to facilitate data sharing and foster collaboration between commercial suppliers and central mobility planners. MaaS is an outcome arising from the synergistic integration of information and communication technology with transportation services. One of the primary concerns associated with MaaS platforms pertains to the challenge of accurately replicating user behavior and the potential consequences of decision-making activities, such as the characteristics of transportation services. Figure 5 shows the current framework vs. the MaaS framework.

Figure 5. Current framework vs. MaaS framework.

4. Analysis and Evaluation of MaaS Services

A comprehensive dataset of the MaaS applications was generated by examining the available applications and online services inside the MaaS framework (as listed in Table 2). The data were collected in April 2025, and the information was revised in June 2025. MaaS levels can be summarized as follows:

Table 2. Year-wise MaaS applications implementation.

Operators	Year	Implementation	Level	Modes of Transportation
GVH	2004	Hanover, Germany	Level 3	Sharing vehicles, bicycles, park-and-ride lots, and taxis are all viable options.
Gaiyo	2008	Utrecht (The Netherland)	Level 3	Parking lots filled with taxis, carshares, scooters, and bikeshares
Gojek	2010	Indonesia	Level 2	Delivery drivers, bicycle cabs, and bluebird taxis
imbric	2011	Spain and Europe	Level 2	Vehicle storage, motorcycle rental, and cab and bus
Citymapper	2011	31 Countries	Level 2	Transportation networks including car-sharing, car-rental, bike-sharing, taxis, urban public transportation, and regional public transportation.
Divia Mobilites	2012	France	Level 2	Park-and-ride services, bicycles, buses, trams, carpooling, taxis, bike-sharing, urban public transportation, and rural public transportation.
moovit	2012	12 countries	Level 1	Ridesharing, taxis, bicycle rentals, and urban physical therapy
ISTmobil	2013	160+ municipalities	Level 2	Public transport system
Fluidtime	2013	Sweden	Level 3	Ridesharing, taxis, bicycle rentals, and urban physical therapy
ULU	2014	Slovenia	Level 2	Connecting cars to the internet.
MyCicero	2015	Italy	Level 2	Permits for parking in urban congestion pricing zones, as well as permits for parking in other urban and regional areas
ReachNow	2015	Hamburg, Germany	Level 2	Carpooling (by bus, tram, shared bicycles, or electric scooters)
wegfinder	2015	Austria	Level 2	Carpooling (by bus, tram, shared bicycles, or electric scooters)
Free2Move	2016	Europe and USA	Level 1	Charging stations at valet parking lots, car-sharing locations, and rental vehicle agencies
moovizy	2016	St. Etienne, France	Level 2	Guidance on many modes of transportation including but not limited to railways
Modalizy	2017	Europe	Level 3	Transportation options include walking, biking, carpooling, driving, and taking the bus or subway.
S’hail	2017	Dubai, UAE	Level 1	Metro, tram, taxi and bus
Whim	2017	Globally	Level 3	Ridesharing, taxis, bicycle rentals, and urban physical therapy
Compte mobilite	2017	Mulhouse metropolitan Area, France	Level 3	Public transport (bus and tram), bicycles, carsharing, parking, e-bikes
MobiFlow	2017	Flanders, Wallonia and Brussels	Level 2	Charging stations at valet parking lots, car-sharing locations, and rental vehicle agencies
Pick	2018	Portugal	Level 2	Transportation services such as carpooling, car rentals, taxis, bikeshare programs, and public transportation in urban and rural areas
Quicko	2018	São Paulo and 5 other cities in Brazil	Level 1	Electric bikes, buses, and trams, as well as car-sharing and parking options.
WienMobil	2018	Vienna, Austria	Level 2	Bicycle, cab, train, bus, tram, power outlets
Beep	2019	US	Level 3	Shared mobility, reducing carbon emissions and traffic congestion
EMOT	2019	Japan	Level 2	Transportation options include bus, train, metro, ferry, transportation, parking, and bike sharing
Jelbi	2019	Berlin (Germany)	Level 3	You can take the bus, the train, the underground, the tram or the car you parked in a lot.
Mobiliteits	2019	Luxembourg	Level 2	Parking, public transportation, ridesharing, taxis, and bike share
SNCF Assistant	2019	Paris, France	Level 3	Transportation options include taxis, shuttles, buses and on-demand carpooling/bicycle pooling
tarc	2019	Louisville, USA	Level 2	You can take the underground, bus, train, bus, cab, shuttle, carpool, taxi, moped, or bike.
yuwway	2019	France	Level 2	Transportation options (bikes, buses, trains, trams) and power sources transport and parking issues
BerlinMobil	2019	Berlin, Germany	Level 1	Options for public transport include:
Arevo	2019	Melbourne, Australia	Level 1	Transportation options include trains, buses, cars, rides, and scooters.
hvv switch	2020	Hamburg, Germany	Level 2	Transportation services such as carpooling, car rentals, taxis, bikeshare programs, and public transportation in urban and rural areas
Mobility Inside	2020	Germany	Level 3	Mobility options include car, bus, train, bike, and flexible carpooling
Move Brussels	2020	Brussels (Belgium)	Level 2	Costs for a variety of transport options
Umaji	2020	Taiwan	Level 3	Transportation options (bus, train, and commuter rail) auto
yumuv	2020	Switzerland	Level 3	Transit on demand, carsharing, bike sharing, scooter sharing, ridesharing, taxi pooling, taxis, and rented automobiles
Citen	2020	Paris, France	Level 2	Ridesharing, electric bikes, scooters, buses, and bikes
DerbyGo	2021	Derby, UK	Level 2	Transportation sharing, taxis, rental cars, cars, bikes, public transit, and public transport outside of major cities.
Glimble	2021	Netherland	Level 2	Transportation (including buses and trams), automobiles, parking, bicycles and electric bikes, taxis, bikes, vehicles, and scooters that can be shared
GoHI	2021	Scotland	Level 2	Buses, trains, taxis, bike rentals, car clubs, flights, ferries, and DRT are only a few available transportation modes.
Jak Lingko	2021	Indonesia	Level 2	Common-carrier ridesharing, BRT, trains, and railways.
Gireve	2022	France and UK	Level 3	Reserve, remunerate, and authenticate rail tickets, linking an electric automobile to a charging station.
Umob	2023	US	Level 3	Discover, book, and pay for any kind of transportation.
MaaS Saudi	2024	Saudi Arabia (Riyadh, Jeddah)	Level 3	Metro, taxis, ride-hailing, park-and-ride, and e-scooters
DelhiMobility	2024	India (Delhi NCR)	Level 2	Metro, buses, e-rickshaws, parking, and shared e-bikes
RideLink MX	2024	Mexico	Level 2	Bike-sharing, minibuses, e-taxis, and metro
FlexMove UK	2024	UK (Manchester)	Level 3	Buses, suburban rail, bikes, carshare, and parking
MaaS Bharat	2025	India	Level 2	Buses, trains, autorickshaws, e-cycles, and intercity cabs
CairoGo	2025	Egypt (Cairo)	Level 2	Metro, buses, tuk-tuks, ferries, and car-hailing
SmartRideSG	2025	Singapore	Level 3	Buses, shared bikes/scooters, AI planning, and payment integration
eMove Lagos	2025	Nigeria (Lagos)	Level 2	Minibuses (danfo), ferries, BRT, and bikes
MetroMaaS USA	2025	USA (Boston or Seattle)	Level 3	Subway, commuter rail, bus, shared mobility, and smart ticketing.

Level 1: information-only (trip planning and schedules)

Level 2: booking and payment integration (multi-mode)

Level 3: full multimodal integration (subscriptions, policies, and incentives)

4.1. Data Analysis

The MaaS services were assessed and evaluated based on operators, starting year, implementation level, and modes of transportation. Only widely used applications that offered MaaS or could identify themselves as such were analyzed. Consequently, public transport operators not recognized as MaaS providers were excluded. Multiple countries were surveyed in the search for potential candidates. The investigation used internet interfaces, data obtained from the service provider’s website and downloaded software. Every submitted application underwent evaluation, and its components were thoroughly examined for vulnerabilities. A total of forty-four initiatives from different nations and locations were examined. The recommendations were from Europe, with a handful originating from the United States, New Zealand, Canada, the Middle East, and Asia. Table 2 shows the year-wise MaaS applications implementation with the mode of transportation. Figure 6 represents the MaaS applications vs. total applications between 2004 and 2025, and Figure 7 represents the MaaS application implementation in different countries and the availability of total MaaS apps between 2004 and 2025.

Figure 6. MaaS applications vs. total applications.

Figure 7. MaaS applications implementation in different countries and availability of MaaS apps between 2004 and 2025.

The available data indicates the market growth pattern, which is somewhat limited compared to other emerging technology sector trends, such as public bike sharing. Out of the total number of apps, most of them claimed to be MaaS services. At the same time, only six of them provided a comprehensive solution that included routing, booking, payment, and ticketing functionalities in one package.

4.2. Levels of Integration

Figure 8 displays the distribution of MaaS applications across different levels of integration, considering the service levels. All applications at level 1 demonstrated the integration of data. Fourteen apps were the only MaaS services that reached level 3, while more than 50% of the other MaaS services attained level 2. When observed from an alternative perspective, it becomes evident that the overwhelming majority of MaaS providers have used ICT to offer state-of-the-art information services to their users. Over 50% of the apps we examined contained a payment or ticketing interface. Nevertheless, only six could effectively capitalize on the integrated approach for mobility packages [60].

Figure 8. MaaS apps vs. level of integration.

The frequency of downloads can determine the popularity of MaaS applications for their separate applications. Some MaaS applications boasted a user base exceeding one million, but others were limited to a few thousand users. The Moovit application had the most extensive geographical coverage. Users can utilize these applications to schedule events, secure seats, and conduct transactions without experiencing any delays. These services depended on the domestic public transportation system, including buses and railroads. Moovit was the app with the highest level of popularity. There was competition as MaaS activities occasionally intersected in certain situations.

4.3. Regional Variability Refers to the Differences or Variations That Exist in Different Regions or Areas

Public transport (PT), the most often utilized method of transportation, was present in 70% of the MaaS applications. PostBus managed a wider range of transport options in the Alps compared to any other service, encompassing taxis, trains, buses, personal bicycles, bike sharing, vehicle sharing, ride sharing, and cable cars. The French and Spanish applications stood out for their strong customization and alteration choices, despite the absence of booking, ticketing, and payment systems. Austrian and German applications implemented a range of sophisticated public transport features, but they mostly overlooked the potential for non-motorized mobility.

4.4. Enhanced Business Capabilities

Most of the applications were created by public transportation companies in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Consequently, they often provided services associated with public transportation, such as ticketing and payment processing. The bulk of application aggregators in France and Spain comprised municipal authorities. Third-party companies, such as UbiGo (Gothenburg, Sweden) and Whim (Helsinki, Finland), frequently operated the applications in Scandinavia that were not based in Europe and catered to international services. Third-party structures constituted 43% of all organizations, whereas local government constituted 25% and public transit operators constituted 32%.

4.5. Enhancements and Physical Structures for Services

Service providers’ platforms are listed in Table 2. Out of the total of forty-four services, more than 85% were available through a mobile application. Moreover, the app was essential for accessing around 70% of the services. No service existed that was entirely browser-based. Table 2 provides comprehensive transportation route information for all possible types of transportation. Taxis and rideshares were the most frequently utilized modes of transportation. Roughly 70% of the companies offered public transport tickets.

Every application could utilize public transportation, and a total of thirteen service providers (equivalent to approximately 40%) were responsible for handling payment transactions. These applications allow customers to make payments for transportation services such as train, bicycle, automobile, or taxi.

According to the data presented in Table 2, 85% of services exclusively accepted either a bank card or a mobile app as a means of payment. Mobile application payments have surpassed the popularity of credit cards.

The most common features found in MaaS apps were the preferred mode of transportation, stored journeys, and remembered locations. The last three alternatives were somewhat infrequent: service alerts, preferred route planning, and traffic information. Commonly, there was a simultaneous existence of favored transportation methods and the transportation methods of conservation of a particular area.

A wide range of services, including mobility packages and complimentary assistance, were readily accessible. They all shared the use of an external entity. Municipal administrations and public transport networks characterized the public systems. Hence, these initiatives often offered the choice to acquire public transit tickets. The user may acquire knowledge about alternative modes of transportation that necessitate a card through various means.

4.6. Python Code for Evaluating Sustainability

Table 3 shows the Python code for evaluating the sustainability and Figure 9 shows the output of the Python code.

Table 3. Python Code for Evaluating Sustainability.

import numpy as np import pandas as pd modes = [‘Bus’, ‘Car’, ‘Bike’, ‘Metro’] N = 1000 # total users P = np.array([0.05, 0.005, 0.002, 0.5]) # Eco-friendly proportions K = np.array([50, 5, 2, 500]) # capacity of each mode E = np.array([0.05, 0.2, 0.01, 0.03]) # emissions per user t = 30 # base travel time in minutes alpha = 0.5 # congestion sensitivity E_max = 0.3 # worst-case emissions T_max = 60 # worst-case travel time w1, w2 = 0.5, 0.5 # sustainability weights U = P * N # number of users per mode T = t * (1 + alpha * (U/K)) # travel time per mode sum_UE = np.sum(U * E) # total emissions sum_UT = np.sum(U * T) # total travel time

# Sustainability Index S = w1 * (1 − sum_UE/(N * E_max)) + w2 * (1 − sum_UT/(N * T_max)) # Display the results in a DataFrame df = pd.DataFrame({ ‘Mode’: modes, ‘Proportion (Pn)’: P, ‘Users (Un)’: U, ‘Capacity (Kn)’: K, ‘Emissions/User (En)’: E, ‘Travel Time (Tn)’: T, ‘Un × En’: U * E, ‘Un × Tn’: U * T }) print(“\n--- Sustainability Index ---”) print(f”Sustainability Index (Sn): {S:.3f}”) print(“\n--- Mode-wise Breakdown ---”) print(df)

Figure 9. Sustainability index.

The value of Sn closer to 1 indicates higher sustainability.

5. Challenges and Opportunities

5.1. Challenges in the Realm of MaaS

The transport options available in contemporary urban areas constantly evolve and expand, encompassing both public and private modes. Coordinating several modes of transport might pose challenges due to the extensive range of choices available. Some consumers prefer to drive their cars for convenience and speed. Individuals utilizing MaaS are granted the opportunity to avail themselves of a unified transportation network, facilitating seamless transitions between various means of transportation. MaaS is a comprehensive approach that combines and harmonizes many modes of travel to assist individuals in their journey planning, booking, and financial transactions. This enhances the efficacy of urban transport while improving the system’s user experience. However, implementing MaaS technology encounters substantial challenges that must be addressed before its widespread adoption in some urban areas [61,62].

5.1.1. The Incorporation of Payment Systems

Integrating transit payment into the application is of utmost importance to achieve a comprehensive deployment of MaaS. Consequently, rather than being redirected to an external application or system for ticket purchasing, users can manage their entire transportation journey within the MaaS application. The achievement of this outcome necessitates the collaboration of numerous stakeholders and the advancement of novel technologies.

5.1.2. The Subscription Model

Establishing a unified and efficient transport network is a logical progression in this context. Public transport packages are offered weekly, monthly, and annually, encompassing a predetermined quantity of rides at a fixed cost. Recently, some shared mobility providers have implemented comparable pricing structures. Establishing a unified membership, including various modes of transportation, such as metro, taxi, and bike-share services, continues to pose challenges for collaboration among these enterprises. Customers often lack clarity regarding their willingness to allocate funds towards a subscription model since individuals utilizing many modes of transportation may encounter challenges in accurately estimating their average monthly expenses associated with mobility. In essence, a significant portion of individuals lack awareness of their expenditure on various modes of transportation, including public transit, ride-hailing services (such as Uber and Cabify), bicycle-sharing programs (such as Movi and NextBike), shared electric scooters (such as Lime and Bird), shared car services (such as Share Now and Zity), and similar alternatives. In this scenario, MaaS solutions are the most straightforward approach to effectively manage and synchronize user-specific shipments across several carriers and various delivery options.

5.1.3. The Process of Ticket Validation

In specific public transport networks, access to physical barriers is restricted exclusively to individuals with valid passes. The implementation of MaaS necessitates establishing a harmonious relationship between public transport systems and smartphone scanning capabilities, enabling the latter to successfully interpret and validate a code that verifies the acquisition of a transport ticket. In conjunction with the utilization of near-field communication (NFC) payment methods such as Apple Pay and Bizum, the incorporation of EMV technology can contribute to the advancement of the existing system. The allocation of resources towards infrastructure development in public transit poses a significant challenge to the effective implementation of MaaS.

5.1.4. The Process of Information Exchange Among Transportation Suppliers

For MaaS to effectively implement a real-time information system, operators must possess the necessary technological capabilities [63,64]. General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) streams are widely utilized to disseminate public transportation timetables and associated spatial data. One of the challenges that needs to be addressed to assure the quality of MaaS and foster user confidence in the system is the data format and the capacity of integrated operators to transmit information.

5.1.5. Ticket Validation

Legal consistency refers to the principle that legal decisions and interpretations should be uniform and coherent across different cases and contexts. In nations with stringent ticketing regulations, the sale of tickets is exclusively authorized by the operator of the public transport system. Nevertheless, the potential for novel distribution channels may result in a rise in transportation utilization.

5.1.6. The Efficacy of the Transit Service

We can provide directly proportional to the extent of MaaS use and data sharing among individuals. Nevertheless, there may be specific individuals who are hesitant to reveal their commuting patterns and preferences. The importance of privacy in this scenario is in its impact on customer trust in transport services and the commitment of these providers. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) of the European Union (EU) imposes a responsibility on businesses to ensure the management of consumers’ personal information. Included in these obligations are the development of a privacy policy that is readily accessible and understandable, as well as the provision of information regarding the intended purposes for which user data will be utilized.

Encouraging individuals to modify their travel behaviors voluntarily poses a significant challenge. This would suggest a transition from the reliance on personal automobile usage to a greater emphasis on ecologically sustainable modes of public and communal mobility.

5.2. Opportunities

• MaaS can enhance both the availability and the demand for transportation. The key advantage of MaaS would be the capacity to create a service that integrates all available modes of transportation, facilitating effortless and immediate transit from one location to another. MaaS offers numerous benefits to metropolitan areas. These factors heavily rely on the MaaS service, the market structure, the operational and governance model employed, and the effectiveness and involvement of all parties within the MaaS ecosystem, which includes local, regional, and national governments.
• MaaS might reduce the necessity for individuals to utilize or possess vehicles by enhancing the accessibility of various transportation alternatives and providing more educated assessments of the most suitable mode(s) of transportation to utilize in specific scenarios. Users can select the transportation mode, or a combination of modes, that most effectively fulfills their requirements for each journey. MaaS might consider special requirements for a trip, such as the necessity to transport bulky luggage or a pram, or the need for accessibility, in addition to fundamental travel preferences such as speed, convenience, comfort, and affordability. This is remarkably accurate for individuals who experience acute or chronic impairments in their ability to move.
• Straightforwardly presenting various modes of transport can additionally enhance the transparency regarding the actual expenses associated with mobility. Customers utilizing the effective integration of several transportation methods may save costs compared to the expenditure associated with car ownership. Suppose that the advantages of driving and possessing a vehicle have diminished, while the availability of public transport has improved. Under such conditions, customers may opt to utilize many modes of transportation to reach their desired destinations. One option is using public transport and subsequently engaging in walking or cycling to the closest station. These attributes would benefit both inhabitants and visitors, particularly those who are unfamiliar with and have difficulty understanding the intricacies of the local transport system.
• MaaS can enhance regional intermodal connections while simultaneously maximizing the use of existing transportation resources and services. During peak hours in urban regions, traditional public transport services such as buses, trams, and cabs are heavily utilized and often overcrowded. However, this is not the situation in suburbs and rural areas or for services provided during early mornings or late nights. Standardizing and sharing data sources among firms in the MaaS ecosystem can enhance network efficiency by enabling more precise and well-informed intermodal decisions, leading to shorter journey times. For instance, a MaaS operator may suggest fewer commonly used routes to clients, particularly those that experience significant demand during peak hours. This can also assist decision-makers in making more effective public investments that yield long-term benefits for all.
• A future in which mobility is less dependent on the ownership of expensive transport assets can lead to enhanced social inclusion, less isolation, and improved access to services, education, employment, and social interaction. MaaS’s customized approach to providing transport from one doorstep to another can establish a standard for creating environmentally friendly transport options for all individuals, especially those who face challenges in utilizing conventional public transport, such as the elderly and disabled. Engaging in physical and mental activities is widely acknowledged to have positive effects on health. As a result, the ability to move freely is considered a basic entitlement that promotes social and economic objectives. Due to the exorbitant expenses associated with conventional transport services, whether public or private, the quality of impaired transit exhibits significant disparities among different regions. Usually, government bodies or individuals create and endorse customized solutions.

The potential benefits of MaaS are succinctly outlined here.

i.

Improve the convenience and quality of travel by increasing personalization, efficiency, responsiveness, and predictability.

ii.

Transport them using the most optimal means of conveyance currently accessible.

iii.

Reduce the duration of travel in general.

iv.

Provide support in enhancing service management, strategizing, and monitoring.

v.

Minimized traffic congestion and its adverse impact on the environment.

vi.

The reduction of transportation expenses, increased availability of suppliers, and expanded accessibility of the service would be achieved.

6. Conclusions

MaaS provides users with a comprehensive and flexible transportation solution encompassing several forms of travel and related services. It enhances the experience of its clients by facilitating transportation through a single application and payment system, hence reducing the requirement for multiple ticketing and payment procedures. In this article, the sustainability index is calculated using a mathematical formula. It refers to a transport ecosystem that balances environmental, economic, and social goals effectively. Taxis, public transit, active modes such as walking and bicycling, ridesharing, car rentals or leases, and any combination thereof are among the several alternatives accessible to a MaaS consumer when they request transportation. The primary objective of MaaS is to maximize its positive impact on society, the economy, and the environment. An efficiently organized MaaS service implements innovative methods for coordinating and managing various transport options. This enhances customer and demand data while enabling transport businesses to fill previously unoccupied market segments. MaaS aims to offer a cost-effective, potentially more convenient, eco-friendly, and effective alternative to using a personal vehicle, while also helping to alleviate traffic congestion and reduce transportation capacity demands. MaaS offers many transportation options for passengers and freight, which may be customized to cater to individual customer preferences and requirements. A MaaS provider can establish the most optimal option for their customer, be it ride-sharing, car-sharing, bike-sharing, taxi services, or public transportation. MaaS enhances knowledge on transportation providers, emerging distribution channels, and unfulfilled customer demands. MaaS platforms offer a range of additional services through their mobile apps. These services include data analysis and the generation of mobility patterns, which can be utilized to develop public transportation policies and infrastructure. The apps also provide information on the location and accessibility of various transportation modes, including traditional vehicles and micro-mobility options such as bikes and scooters.

In summary, MaaS can mitigate a significant portion of the transportation, pollution, and congestion issues contemporary urban areas face. However, for MaaS to be successfully implemented in an urban setting, several other prerequisites must be satisfied, apart from the mere existence of alternative mobility options and the widespread adoption of mobile phones in the community. Much work must be undertaken before fully integrating transport operators into MaaS and creating transit coupons tailored to individual users. Regardless, the inclination of a city to embrace more sustainable forms of mobility, together with the accessibility of well-developed transit alternatives, plays a crucial role in determining the viability of MaaS within that urban area.