Dioxin Congener Patterns in Breast Milk Samples from Areas Sprayed with Herbicide during the Vietnam War 40 Years after the War Ended
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Areas and Subjects
2.2. Determining Dioxin Concentrations in Breast Milk
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Dioxin Concentrations in Breast Milk from Vietnamese Mothers
4.2. Dioxin Concentrations in Breast Milk from Mothers Exposed to Dioxins in Countries Other Than Vietnam
4.2.1. Dioxin Levels in Breast Milk from Mothers from European Countries
4.2.2. Dioxin Levels in Breast Milk from Asian Countries
4.3. Dioxins in Breast Milk and Other Markers of Exposure to PCDD/Fs
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Unsprayed areas | Quang Tri | Da Nang | Bien Hoa | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LOD | n = 264 | n = 87 | n = 227 | n = 283 | ||||||||||||||||
(ppt) | Med | GM | GSD | Adj M | Med | GM | GSD | Adj M | Med | GM | GSD | Adj M | Med | GM | GSD | Adj M | ||||
PCDD congeners (pg/g lipid) | ||||||||||||||||||||
2,3,7,8-TetraCDD | 0.004 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.9 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 2.0 | 0.8 | * | 1.4 | 1.4 | 2.3 | 1.4 | * | 2.0 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 2.1 | * |
1,2,3,7,8- PentaCDD | 0.011 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 1.7 | 1.3 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 2.3 | * | 4.2 | 4.1 | 1.6 | 4.1 | * | 2.9 | 2.9 | 1.6 | 2.7 | * |
1,2,3,4,7,8- HexaCDD | 0.004 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.7 | 0.6 | 1.7 | 1.4 | 2.4 | 1.4 | * | 2.3 | 2.2 | 1.6 | 2.2 | * | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.6 | 1.3 | * |
1,2,3,6,7,8- HexaCDD | 0.010 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 6.7 | 6.2 | 1.8 | 6.2 | * | 8.4 | 8.0 | 1.7 | 8.1 | * | 4.5 | 4.4 | 1.8 | 4.3 | * |
1,2,3,7,8,9- HexaCDD | 0.008 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.8 | 0.6 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 2.2 | 1.6 | * | 2.6 | 2.6 | 1.7 | 2.6 | * | 2.0 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 2.1 | * |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8- HeptaCDD | 0.008 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 2.1 | 14.1 | 13.3 | 1.8 | 13.2 | * | 11.8 | 11.8 | 1.6 | 11.9 | * | 8.5 | 9.2 | 1.9 | 9.0 | * |
OctaCDD | 0.008 | 14.7 | 13.1 | 2.2 | 13.4 | 45.2 | 44.1 | 1.8 | 44 | * | 64.2 | 66.7 | 1.6 | 67 | * | 55.2 | 61.7 | 1.9 | 59.8 | * |
PCDF congeners (pg/g lipid) | ||||||||||||||||||||
2,3,7,8-TetraCDF | 0.005 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.7 | 0.5 | * | 0.5 | 0.5 | 2.0 | 0.5 | * | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.7 | 0.6 | * |
1,2,3,7,8- PentaCDF | 0.006 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 1.8 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 2.1 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 1.2 | * | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.7 | 0.6 | ||
2,3,4,7,8- PentaCDF | 0.010 | 2.8 | 2.7 | 1.5 | 2.8 | 4.4 | 4.3 | 1.9 | 4.4 | * | 7.3 | 7.0 | 1.6 | 7.1 | * | 3.5 | 3.6 | 1.6 | 3.5 | * |
1,2,3,4,7,8- HexaCDF | 0.008 | 1.7 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 14.4 | 12.6 | 2.1 | 12.7 | * | 17.8 | 16.9 | 1.8 | 17.2 | * | 5.7 | 5.8 | 1.6 | 5.6 | * |
1,2,3,6,7,8- HexaCDF | 0.003 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 8.3 | 7.4 | 2.1 | 7.4 | * | 11.0 | 10.3 | 1.8 | 10.4 | * | 3.3 | 3.4 | 1.6 | 3.3 | * |
1,2,3,7,8,9- HexaCDF | 0.004 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 2.1 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.3 | 1.0 | * | 0.2 | 0.2 | 2.3 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 1.8 | 0.5 | * | |
2,3,4,6,7,8- HexaCDF | 0.006 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 2.8 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 2.9 | 0.3 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 1.7 | 1.3 | * | 0.7 | 0.7 | 1.7 | 0.7 | * | |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8- HeptaCDF | 0.010 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.8 | 1.1 | 10.8 | 10.4 | 2.2 | 10.4 | * | 11.9 | 11.9 | 1.8 | 12.0 | * | 3.2 | 3.3 | 1.8 | 3.3 | * |
1,2,3,4,7,8,9- HeptaCDF | 0.004 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 2.3 | 0.2 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 2.8 | 1.4 | * | 1.3 | 1.2 | 2.2 | 1.2 | * | 0.6 | 0.7 | 1.9 | 0.6 | * |
OctaCDF | 0.013 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 3.6 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 3.3 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 2.4 | 0.6 | * | 1.6 | 1.6 | 2.1 | 1.6 | * | |
TEQs (pg/g lipid) | ||||||||||||||||||||
TEQ-PCDD/Fs | 3.7 | 3.7 | 1.5 | 3.8 | 9.7 | 9.1 | 1.8 | 9.1 | * | 12.8 | 12.5 | 1.6 | 12.7 | * | 8.5 | 9.0 | 1.7 | 8.6 | * |
Quang Tri | Da Nang | Bien Hoa | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | OR | n | % | OR | n | % | OR | |||
Primiparae | 4 | 14.8 | 1.0 | 17 | 24.6 | 2.1 | 47 | 41.6 | 3.7 | * | |
Multiparae | 1 | 1.7 | 1.0 | 39 | 24.7 | 19.5 | ** | 66 | 38.8 | 36.6 | *** |
All | 5 | 5.7 | 1.0 | 56 | 24.7 | 5.6 | *** | 113 | 39.9 | 10.0 | *** |
Quang Tri | Da Nang | Bien Hoa | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | OR | n | % | OR | n | % | OR | |||
1,2,3,6,7,8-HexaCDD | |||||||||||
Primiparae | 3 | 11.1 | 1.0 | 16 | 23.2 | 2.6 | 4 | 3.5 | 0.25 | ||
Multiparae | 8 | 13.3 | 1.0 | 41 | 25.9 | 2.2 | 7 | 4.1 | 0.25 | * | |
All | 11 | 12.6 | 1.0 | 57 | 25.1 | 2.4 | * | 11 | 3.9 | 0.25 | ** |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDD | |||||||||||
Primiparae | 11 | 40.7 | 1.0 | 13 | 18.8 | 0.37 | 16 | 14.2 | 0.20 | *** | |
Multiparae | 24 | 40.0 | 1.0 | 44 | 27.8 | 0.57 | 28 | 16.5 | 0.27 | *** | |
All | 35 | 40.2 | 1.0 | 57 | 25.1 | 0.50 | * | 44 | 15.5 | 0.24 | *** |
Unsprayed Areas | Dioxin Exposed Areas | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 264) | Quang Tri (n = 87) | Da Nang (n = 227) | Bien Hoa (n = 283) | |||||
β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | |
1,2,3,6,7,8-HexaCDD | 0.476 | *** | 0.559 | *** | 0.518 | *** | 0.438 | *** |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDD | 0.351 | *** | 0.501 | *** | 0.385 | *** | 0.285 | *** |
1,2,3,4,7,8-HexaCDF | 0.332 | *** | 0.429 | *** | 0.392 | *** | 0.258 | *** |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDF | 0.332 | *** | 0.229 | * | 0.271 | *** | 0.205 | ** |
Primiparae | Multiparae | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unsprayed Areas | Dioxin Exposed Areas | Unsprayed Areas | Dioxin Exposed Areas | |||||||||||||
Quang Tri | Da Nang | Bien Hoa | Quang Tri | Da Nang | Bien Hoa | |||||||||||
n = 105 | n = 27 | n = 69 | n = 113 | n = 159 | n = 60 | n = 158 | n = 170 | |||||||||
β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | |
1,2,3,6,7,8-HexaCDD | 0.586 | *** | 0.590 | ** | 0.303 | ** | 0.448 | *** | 0.415 | *** | 0.579 | *** | 0.574 | *** | 0.437 | *** |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8- HeptaCDD | 0.361 | *** | 0.477 | *** | 0.393 | ** | 0.223 | * | 0.334 | *** | 0.501 | *** | 0.383 | *** | 0.320 | *** |
1,2,3,4,7,8-HexaCDF | 0.401 | *** | 0.478 | *** | 0.214 | 0.170 | 0.303 | *** | 0.435 | ** | 0.439 | *** | 0.307 | *** | ||
1,2,3,4,6,7,8- HeptaCDF | 0.384 | *** | 0.094 | 0.139 | 0.090 | 0.311 | *** | 0.261 | * | 0.308 | *** | 0.267 | ** |
Italy [21] | Germany [22] | Spain [23] | China [24] | Japan [25] | Vietnam [14] | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Seveso | Milan | Lombardy | Duisburg | Catalonia | Tianjin | Hokuriku | PhuCat | |
n = 12 | n = 12 | n = 12 | n = 169 | n = 20 | n = 20 | n = 75 | n = 16 | |
PCDD congeners (pg/g lipid) | ||||||||
2,3,7,8-TetraCDD | 3.7 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 2.1 |
1,2,3,7,8-PentaCDD | 2.4 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 4.2 | 5.7 |
1,2,3,4,7,8-HexaCDD | 1.3 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 2.7 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 1.4 | 2.5 |
1,2,3,6,7,8-HexaCDD | 7.3 | 9.5 | 8.6 | 11.6 | 2.6 | 2.1 | 13.7 | 10.0 |
1,2,3,7,8,9-HexaCDD | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 2.3 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 1.9 | 3.4 |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDD | 7.3 | 11.5 | 10.2 | 12.6 | 2.8 | 3.0 | 6.8 | 17.1 |
OctaCDD | 38.6 | 49.5 | 50.2 | 70.4 | 15.7 | 20.5 | 56.2 | 80.9 |
PCDF congeners (pg/g lipid) | ||||||||
2,3,7,8-TetraCDF | nd | nd | nd | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 0.7 |
1,2,3,7,8-PentaCDF | nd | 0.2 | nd | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 2.4 |
2,3,4,7,8-PentaCDF | 5.9 | 8.9 | 7.3 | 10.1 | 1.9 | 5.6 | 8.1 | 7.6 |
1,2,3,4,7,8-HexaCDF | 2.7 | 3.3 | 2.8 | 2.7 | 0.6 | 2.9 | 2.3 | 18.7 |
1,2,3,6,7,8-HexaCDF | 1.7 | 2.4 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 0.6 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 10.6 |
1,2,3,7,8,9-HexaCDF | nd | nd | nd | 1.0 | 0.4 | nd | 1.5 | 0.5 |
2,3,4,6,7,8-HexaCDF | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 0.1 | nd | 1.1 | nd | 1.7 |
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDF | 0.7 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 1.9 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 19.8 |
1,2,3,4,7,8,9-HeptaCDF | nd | nd | nd | 0.1 | nd | nd | nd | 2.1 |
OctaCDF | nd | nd | nd | 0.3 | nd | nd | 0.6 | 1.3 |
TEQs (pg/g lipid) | ||||||||
TEQ-PCDD/Fs | 10.7 | 11.7 | 10.3 | 13.3 | 2.3 | 5.0 | 11.8 | 16.1 |
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Nishijo, M.; Vu, H.T.; Pham-The, T.; Pham, T.N.; Tran, N.N.; Nakagawa, H.; Nishijo, H. Dioxin Congener Patterns in Breast Milk Samples from Areas Sprayed with Herbicide during the Vietnam War 40 Years after the War Ended. Toxics 2022, 10, 323. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10060323
Nishijo M, Vu HT, Pham-The T, Pham TN, Tran NN, Nakagawa H, Nishijo H. Dioxin Congener Patterns in Breast Milk Samples from Areas Sprayed with Herbicide during the Vietnam War 40 Years after the War Ended. Toxics. 2022; 10(6):323. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10060323
Chicago/Turabian StyleNishijo, Muneko, Hoa Thi Vu, Tai Pham-The, Thao Ngoc Pham, Nghi Ngoc Tran, Hideaki Nakagawa, and Hisao Nishijo. 2022. "Dioxin Congener Patterns in Breast Milk Samples from Areas Sprayed with Herbicide during the Vietnam War 40 Years after the War Ended" Toxics 10, no. 6: 323. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10060323