Impact of Long COVID on Health-Related Quality of Life Among COVID-19 Survivors in Saudi Arabia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Questionnaire Development and Data Collection
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. EQ-5D-5L
4.2. Number of LC Symptoms
4.3. Age and Chronic Conditions
4.4. Pneumonia on Acute Presentation
4.5. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
COVID-19 | Coronavirus disease 2019 |
LC | Long COVID |
HRQoL | Health-related quality of life |
SARS-CoV-2 | Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 |
EQ-5D-5L | EuroQoL 5 Dimensional 5 Levels |
RT-PCR | Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction |
EQ VAS | EuroQol Visual Analogue Scale |
SD | Standard deviation |
IQR | Interquartile range |
HTN | Hypertension |
IBD | Inflammatory bowel disease |
BMI | Body mass index |
SOB | Shortness of breath |
ADL | Activities of daily living |
WB | Well-Being |
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Characteristic | Mean (SD) or n (%) |
---|---|
Sex | |
Female | 492 (48%) |
Male | 532 (52%) |
Age (years), mean (SD) | 33.25 (12.43) |
Marital status | |
Never married | 464 (45.3%) |
Married | 560 (54.7%) |
Level of education | |
High school education or less | 319 (31.2%) |
University degree or diploma | 665 (64.9%) |
Higher studies | 40 (3.9%) |
Socioeconomic status level | |
Very low | 4 (0.4%) |
Low | 54 (5.3%) |
Medium | 632 (61.7%) |
High | 177 (17.3%) |
Very high | 157 (15.3%) |
BMI (kg/m2), mean (SD) | 26.41 (5.16) |
Smoking | |
Never smoked | 769 (75.1%) |
Former smoker | 74 (7.2%) |
Current smoker | 181 (17.7%) |
Chronic disease | |
None | 526 (51.4%) |
One | 296 (28.9%) |
Two or more | 202 (19.7%) |
Characteristic | Median (IQR) or n (%) |
---|---|
How many times did you get PCR-confirmed COVID-19 infection? | |
Once | 777 (75.9%) |
Twice | 201 (19.6%) |
Three times | 40 (3.9%) |
Four times | 2 (0.2%) |
Five times | 4 (0.4%) |
How many COVID-19 vaccine shots did you receive? | |
None | 6 (0.6%) |
One dose | 2 (0.2%) |
Two doses | 76 (7.4%) |
Three doses | 929 (90.7%) |
Four doses | 11 (1.1%) |
Presented to the hospital with pneumonia | |
No | 926 (90.4%) |
Yes | 98 (9.6%) |
Need for healthcare | |
No need/Asymptomatic | 175 (17.1%) |
Home management | 648 (63.3%) |
ER/Out-patient services | 159 (15.5%) |
Required hospital admission | 42 (4.1%) |
Hospital admission type | |
No admission | 982 (95.9%) |
Hospital floor admission | 32 (3.1%) |
ICU admission | 10 (1%) |
Acute COVID-19 symptoms, median (IQR) | 6 (6) |
Experienced long COVID symptoms | |
No | 371 (36.2%) |
Yes | 653 (63.8%) |
Acute COVID-19 symptoms | |
Fever | 722 (75.1%) |
Cough | 712 (74%) |
Fatigue | 495 (51.5%) |
Headache | 410 (42.6%) |
Anosmia | 397 (41.3%) |
Sore throat | 375 (39%) |
SOB | 370 (38.5%) |
Runny nose | 351 (36.5%) |
Ageusia | 294 (30.6%) |
Nasal congestion | 283 (29.4%) |
Joint pain | 269 (28%) |
Back pain | 262 (27.2%) |
Chest pain | 247 (25.7%) |
Chills | 244 (25.4%) |
Muscle pain | 237 (24.6%) |
Appetite | 229 (23.8%) |
Mean (SD) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Overall | No LC (n = 371) | LC (n = 653) | p-Value a | |
EQ-5D-5L Index Score | 0.947 (0.111) | 0.98 (0.08) | 0.93 (0.12) | <0.001 |
Self-Rated Mobility Ability | 4.84 (0.53) | 4.93 (0.37) | 4.78 (0.59) | <0.001 |
Self-Rated Self-Care Ability | 4.93 (0.33) | 4.97 (0.24) | 4.91 (0.70) | <0.001 |
Self-Rated Ability to Perform ADL | 4.84 (0.50) | 4.94 (0.35) | 4.80 (0.55) | <0.001 |
Comfort Level | 4.74 (0.61) | 4.91 (0.40) | 4.65 (0.69) | <0.001 |
Anxiety/Depression (Psychological WB) | 4.73 (0.66) | 4.86 (0.46) | 4.65 (0.74) | <0.001 |
EQ VAS Scale (Out of 100) | 88.78 (13.8) | 91.84 (11.78) | 87.04 (14.58) | <0.001 |
Variable | Adjusted Risk Rate (RR) | 95% CI | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Number of LC symptoms | 0.991 | (0.99, 1) | <0.001 |
Gender | |||
Male | Reference | ||
Female | 1.007 | (0.98, 1.03) | 0.602 |
Age (Years) | 0.998 | (0.996, 0.999) | <0.001 |
Marital Status | |||
Never married | Reference | ||
Married | 1.021 | (0.99, 1.05) | 0.137 |
Socioeconomic Status | |||
Very low–Low | Reference | ||
Medium–High | 1.008 | (1, 1.02) | 0.207 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.999 | (0.997, 1.001) | 0.379 |
Number of Acute COVID Symptoms at Presentation | 1.007 | (1, 1.02) | 0.125 |
Pneumonia at Presentation | 0.956 | (0.92, 0.99) | 0.015 |
EQ VAS Scale | 1.031 | (1.02, 1.04) | <0.001 |
History of Hypertension | 0.951 | (0.91, 1) | 0.033 |
History of Depression | 0.931 | (0.87, 1) | 0.052 |
History of Anxiety Disorder | 0.862 | (0.81, 0.92) | <0.001 |
History of Inflammatory Bowel Disease | 0.940 | (0.88, 1.01) | 0.076 |
(Intercept) | 0.937 | (0.86, 1.02) | 0.119 |
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BuSaad, M.A.; Aldhawyan, A.F.; Alattas, B.A.; AlAlloush, R.S.; Alharbi, M.A.; Alkaltham, N.K.; AlAbdulKader, A.; AlOmar, R.S. Impact of Long COVID on Health-Related Quality of Life Among COVID-19 Survivors in Saudi Arabia. Healthcare 2025, 13, 890. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13080890
BuSaad MA, Aldhawyan AF, Alattas BA, AlAlloush RS, Alharbi MA, Alkaltham NK, AlAbdulKader A, AlOmar RS. Impact of Long COVID on Health-Related Quality of Life Among COVID-19 Survivors in Saudi Arabia. Healthcare. 2025; 13(8):890. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13080890
Chicago/Turabian StyleBuSaad, Mohammed A., Adam F. Aldhawyan, Batool A. Alattas, Rahaf S. AlAlloush, Mohammed A. Alharbi, Nourah K. Alkaltham, Assim AlAbdulKader, and Reem S. AlOmar. 2025. "Impact of Long COVID on Health-Related Quality of Life Among COVID-19 Survivors in Saudi Arabia" Healthcare 13, no. 8: 890. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13080890
APA StyleBuSaad, M. A., Aldhawyan, A. F., Alattas, B. A., AlAlloush, R. S., Alharbi, M. A., Alkaltham, N. K., AlAbdulKader, A., & AlOmar, R. S. (2025). Impact of Long COVID on Health-Related Quality of Life Among COVID-19 Survivors in Saudi Arabia. Healthcare, 13(8), 890. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13080890