On the Role of Informal vs. Formal Context of Language Experience in Italian–German Primary School Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
2.1. Dominance and Schooling in the ML
2.2. Reported Language Experience
2.3. Narrative Abilities
3. Research Questions and Predictions
4. Methods
4.1. Participants
4.2. Materials
4.3. Procedure
4.4. Data Analysis
5. Results
5.1. Formal and Informal Language Experience
5.2. Language Experience in Relation to Micro- and Macrostructure
- Formal language experience showed no effects on any of the measures.
- There were no effects of language experience on syntactic complexity and any of the macrostructure measures.
- Vocabulary diversity was significantly predicted by informal language experience in both languages: more German experience predicted lower MATTR scores in Italian (p < 0.001), and more Italian experience predicted higher MATTR scores in Italian (p = 0.001).
- Speech rate was the most sensitive measure predicted by language experience: More German experience was related to slower speech in Italian (p < 0.001), and more Italian experience was related to higher speed in Italian (p < 0.001); more German experience was related to higher speech in German (p < 0.01), and more Italian experience was related to lower speed in German (p < 0.01). This latter effect on German was not as strong as the aforementioned one of informal Italian experience on Italian speech rate.
- MLU was the only syntactic measure affected by informal language experience, with more informal German experience predicting lower MLUs in Italian (p < 0.05).
5.3. Dimensions of Dominance (Experience and Proficiency) across Age Groups
6. Discussion
6.1. Formal and Informal Language Experience and Effects on Proficiency
6.2. How Does Dominance Change?
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
1 | Within Biki6, 15 children still attended kindergarten. Nevertheless, we label all the children in this study as “primary school children” since they were all attending or about to start primary school. In fact, we did not include any children younger than 6 years old. |
2 | The complete questionnaire is provided in Supplementary Materials Section S1. The questionnaire includes two separate sections that tackle child education before/after vs. during the pandemic since children were tested at different stages of the pandemic. For the analysis, we calculated a unique average score for these sections to have a more reliable view of the child’s experience with and without lockdowns. |
3 | According to score D, the children in our study struggled to give the correct answer to the tenth question, which asked whether the child would become friends with the cat/dog after it stole the child’s fish/sausages. According to the manual, the answer is no, but the children seemed to find it hard to think that the child could not become friends with the animal. To ensure comparability across studies, we followed the manual and gave 0 points for yes-answers, despite the plausibility of the children’s motivations. |
4 | Thirteen children in the Biki6 group, ten in Biki7, six in Biki8, and seven in Biki9 attended monolingual schools. The number of children attending monolingual schools and Italian (extracurricular) classes was nine in Biki6, nine in Biki7, five in Biki8, and eleven in Biki9. The number of children attending bilingual schools was two in Biki6, three in Biki7, seven in Biki8, and five in Biki9. |
5 | For each measure in this section, we calculated separate models for each language. |
6 | Regarding the effect on score D, our reservations on the interpretation are discussed above. |
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Total | N Female (%) | Mean Age in Years (SD) | N 2L1 | N eL2 (AoO Ger: Mean, SD) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Biki6 | 24 | 15 (63%) | 6.5 (0.3) | 15 | 9 (2.75, 1.17) |
Biki7 | 22 | 11 (50%) | 7.5 (0.3) | 15 | 7 (3.04, 0.80) |
Biki8 | 18 | 12 (67%) | 8.7 (0.2) | 6 | 12 (2.97, 1.46) |
Biki9 | 23 | 7 (30%) | 9.5 (0.3) | 14 | 9 (3, 1.71) |
FORMAL | INFORMAL |
---|---|
|
|
|
|
Biki6 (n = 24) | Biki7 (n = 22) | Biki8 (n = 18) | Biki9 (n = 23) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Formal | German | 7.95 (1.5) | 7.81 (1.2) | 6.83 (2.3) | 7.65 (1.4) |
Italian | 2.20 (1.4) | 2.13 (1.6) | 3.34 (2.3) | 2.38 (1.9) | |
Informal | German | 5.12 (1.3) | 5.71 (1.9) | 5.26 (1.6) | 5.94 (2) |
Italian | 5.54 (1.5) | 4.91 (2) | 5.76 (2.1) | 4.87 (2.4) |
Biki6 (n = 24) | Biki7 (n = 22) | Biki8 (n = 18) | Biki9 (n = 23) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
MATTR | German | 0.95 (0.03) | 0.96 (0.02) | 0.96 (0.02) | 0.97 (0.01) |
Italian | 0.92 (0.03) | 0.92 (0.04) | 0.92 (0.02) | 0.92 (0.03) | |
Speech rate | German | 1.87 (0.4) | 1.81 (0.5) | 1.98 (0.5) | 2.07 (0.4) |
Italian | 1.68 (0.4) | 1.43 (0.7) | 1.98 (0.4) | 1.76 (0.5) | |
MLU | German | 7.37 (1) | 7.45 (1.3) | 8.04 (1.4) | 8.21 (1.3) |
Italian | 7.49 (1.1) | 7.87 (1.8) | 8.71 (1.6) | 8.46 (1.5) | |
CI | German | 1.17 (0.2) | 1.16 (0.1) | 1.23 (0.2) | 1.29 (0.2) |
Italian | 1.20 (0.1) | 1.27 (0.2) | 1.30 (0.1) | 1.30 (0.2) |
Biki6 (n = 24) | Biki7 (n = 22) | Biki8 (n = 18) | Biki9 (n = 23) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Score B | German | 4.04 (1.4) | 3.50 (2.2) | 5 (2.5) | 5.22 (2.2) |
Italian | 3.79 (1.9) | 3.59 (1.8) | 4.11 (1.9) | 4.52 (1.9) | |
Score D | German | 8.96 (1.2) | 9.18 (0.8) | 8.83 (1.2) | 9 (0.9) |
Italian | 8.55 (1.2) | 8.95 (1) | 9.33 (0.8) | 8.96 (0.7) |
Biki6 (n = 24) | Biki7 (n = 22) | Biki8 (n = 18) | Biki9 (n = 23) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Formal | 5.75 (2.7) | 5.68 (2.4) | 3.49 (4.5) | 5.27 (3) |
Informal | −0.42 (2.6) | 0.80 (3.8) | −0.50 (3.6) | 1.07 (4.4) |
MATTR | 0.02 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.05 (0.03) |
Speech rate | 0.19 (0.6) | 0.37 (0.8) | 0 (0.4) | 0.31 (0.6) |
MLU | −0.12 (1.1) | −0.42 (1.8) | −0.68 (1.5) | −0.25 (2.1) |
Complexity Index | −0.04 (0.2) | −0.08 (0.3) | −0.07 (0.3) | −0.01 (0.3) |
Score B | 0.25 (1.8) | −0.09 (2.8) | 0.89 (2.4) | 0.7 (2.5) |
Score D | 0.46 (1.0) | 0.23 (1.1) | −0.5 (1.2) | 0.04 (1.1) |
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Piccione, M.; Ferin, M.F.; Furlani, N.; Geiß, M.; Marinis, T.; Kupisch, T. On the Role of Informal vs. Formal Context of Language Experience in Italian–German Primary School Children. Languages 2024, 9, 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020063
Piccione M, Ferin MF, Furlani N, Geiß M, Marinis T, Kupisch T. On the Role of Informal vs. Formal Context of Language Experience in Italian–German Primary School Children. Languages. 2024; 9(2):63. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020063
Chicago/Turabian StylePiccione, Mariapaola, Maria Francesca Ferin, Noemi Furlani, Miriam Geiß, Theodoros Marinis, and Tanja Kupisch. 2024. "On the Role of Informal vs. Formal Context of Language Experience in Italian–German Primary School Children" Languages 9, no. 2: 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020063
APA StylePiccione, M., Ferin, M. F., Furlani, N., Geiß, M., Marinis, T., & Kupisch, T. (2024). On the Role of Informal vs. Formal Context of Language Experience in Italian–German Primary School Children. Languages, 9(2), 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020063