Resources

32 pages, 7374 KB

Open AccessArticle

Half a Century of Global Agricultural Commodity Connectedness Under Geopolitical Risk: The Role of Threats and Acts (1975–2026)

by Hela Ben Hamida

Resources 2026, 15(6), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060082 - 22 Jun 2026

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Using a dataset covering January 1975 to March 2026 and six agricultural commodities, wheat, corn, soybeans, oats, sugar, and coffee, this paper explores the role of geopolitical risk (acts and threats) in shaping cross-market connectedness. It proposes a multilayer methodology based on the [...] Read more.

Using a dataset covering January 1975 to March 2026 and six agricultural commodities, wheat, corn, soybeans, oats, sugar, and coffee, this paper explores the role of geopolitical risk (acts and threats) in shaping cross-market connectedness. It proposes a multilayer methodology based on the time-varying parameter vector autoregressive (TVP-VAR), the exponential GARCH with exogenous variables (EGARCH-X), and the wavelet quantile correlation (WQC) frameworks. This methodology captures cross-market volatility spillovers, assesses the effects of geopolitical risk and its components on the strength and instability of connectedness, and incorporates nonlinearity and asymmetry across investment horizons and market conditions. The results show a time-varying pattern in agricultural cross-market connectedness. Corn and soybeans transmit volatility shocks, while the other commodities are net receivers. These commodities have a central position in the connectivity network, whereas sugar and coffee are in the peripheral zone. The EGARCH-X results show that geopolitical acts and threats do not significantly alter the overall level of connectedness but intensify its volatility, suggesting that geopolitical tensions primarily influence stability rather than the intensity of connectedness. Economic policy uncertainty and oil price volatility have similar effects. In line with these results, the WQC analysis uncovers significant nonlinearity and state-dependent linkages, underscoring that the effect of geopolitical acts and threats becomes prominent over medium- and long-term horizons and during periods of market stress. These findings contribute to the literature by differentiating the effects of geopolitical incidents on agricultural market connectedness versus volatility. From an operational standpoint, these results imply that policymakers and market operators should enhance their risk-monitoring and hedging strategies during periods of high geopolitical stress, as such events can amplify instability across agricultural commodity markets. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 9222 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Soils and Irrigation Water and Human Health Risk in a Gold Mining-Impacted Area of Southern Ecuador

by Juan González-Menéndez, Carlos Hugo Bustamante-Torres, Bryan Salgado-Almeida, Giannella Muriel-Granda, Samantha Jiménez-Oyola and Kenny Escobar-Segovia

Resources 2026, 15(6), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060081 - 22 Jun 2026

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Areas where mining activities overlap with agricultural production may promote the mobilization of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) into soils and water resources, thereby creating exposure pathways for populations living or working in these environments. This study analyzes the concentration of PTEs in agricultural [...] Read more.

Areas where mining activities overlap with agricultural production may promote the mobilization of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) into soils and water resources, thereby creating exposure pathways for populations living or working in these environments. This study analyzes the concentration of PTEs in agricultural soils and irrigation water from Santa Rosa, southern Ecuador, and assesses the associated health risks for exposed agricultural workers. For this purpose, 35 soil samples were collected from farms and 12 water samples from the irrigation canal during the dry season of 2025. The concentration of PTEs in soil and water was determined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), respectively. The PTE concentration in both matrices was compared with the maximum permissible limits (MPL) established by Ecuadorian regulations. Non-carcinogenic hazard indices (

H I

) and carcinogenic risk (

T C R

) were estimated following the U.S. EPA methodology. In soil, As and Cr were the PTEs of greatest concern, exceeding the MPL in 93% of the samples and by up to 4.4 and 2.4 times, respectively, while in water, all PTEs were below the MPL. Non-carcinogenic risk was below the recommended limit for soil and water (

H I_{s o i l}

= 3.00 × 10⁻² and

H I_{w a t e r}

= 2.00 × 10⁻³), with As as the dominant contributor. Cancer risk was tolerable in soil (

T C R_{s o i l}

= 4.34 × 10⁻⁵), while in water it remained at a low level (

T C R_{w a t e r}

= 1.65 × 10⁻⁶). These findings identify As and Cr as priority contaminants and support targeted monitoring and source-control measures in mining-influenced agricultural areas. Overall, by integrating agricultural soil and irrigation water quality with an occupational health risk assessment in Santa Rosa, this study contributes evidence to support future research in mining–agriculture coexistence areas. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 1021 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Corrosion Inhibition of Admiralty Brass Using Plant Waste Extracts: Phytochemical and Electrochemical Screening with Techno-Economic Insights

by María Belén Canchig, Mateo Oleas, Ariel Miranda, Alfredo Viloria, Ruth Oropeza, Paola E. Ordóñez, Marvin Ricaurte and Alex Palma-Cando

Resources 2026, 15(6), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060080 - 22 Jun 2026

Viewed by 334

Abstract

Admiralty brass, commonly used in heat exchangers, is particularly susceptible to corrosion in acidic media such as those used in industrial cleaning. To mitigate this problem, the present study evaluated Musa acuminata (banana) peel and Lupinus mutabilis Sweet (Andean lupine) extracts as sustainable, [...] Read more.

Admiralty brass, commonly used in heat exchangers, is particularly susceptible to corrosion in acidic media such as those used in industrial cleaning. To mitigate this problem, the present study evaluated Musa acuminata (banana) peel and Lupinus mutabilis Sweet (Andean lupine) extracts as sustainable, low-toxicity corrosion inhibitors for admiralty brass in 0.5 M HCl. Six extracts were prepared using different solvents and characterized by qualitative and semi-quantitative phytochemical analyses (phenols, flavonoids, alkaloids). M. acuminata extracts were rich in phenolic compounds, while L. mutabilis extracts contained high levels of quinolizidine alkaloids. A comparative electrochemical screening of the agro-industrial waste-derived extracts revealed that the inhibition efficiency of M. acuminata extracts reached up to 43.6%, whereas the debittering wastewater extract of L. mutabilis (E6) achieved a maximum efficiency of 85.5% at 2000 ppm. A preliminary techno-economic analysis indicated the feasibility of industrial-scale production of the L. mutabilis-based inhibitor, yielding a net present value (NPV) of USD 9.48 million, an internal rate of return (IRR) of 27.3%, and a payback period of 6.7 years. These results demonstrate that agro-industrial residues can be valorized into effective and profitable green corrosion inhibitors, aligning with circular economy and sustainable chemistry principles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resource Recovery and Valorisation from Agricultural Products and Wastes)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 688 KB

Open AccessArticle

When Does Water Scarcity Become a Sovereign Financial Risk? International Threshold Evidence on Sovereign Borrowing Costs

by Ezer Ayadi

Resources 2026, 15(6), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060079 - 16 Jun 2026

Viewed by 331

Abstract

Water scarcity is increasingly recognized as a macroeconomic challenge, yet its implications for sovereign financing conditions remain insufficiently understood. This study examines whether water scarcity is associated with sovereign borrowing costs and whether this relationship strengthens once hydrological pressure exceeds a critical threshold. [...] Read more.

Water scarcity is increasingly recognized as a macroeconomic challenge, yet its implications for sovereign financing conditions remain insufficiently understood. This study examines whether water scarcity is associated with sovereign borrowing costs and whether this relationship strengthens once hydrological pressure exceeds a critical threshold. Using an international panel of 105 countries over the period 2000–2024, the analysis combines second-generation panel diagnostics with nonlinear threshold estimation to examine long-run relationships and regime-dependent effects. The results indicate that water scarcity is positively associated with sovereign risk premiums, but the relationship is distinctly nonlinear. A critical threshold is identified at 61.37% water stress, beyond which the estimated association becomes substantially larger, with the coefficient increasing from 0.005 below the threshold to 0.024 above it. This pattern suggests that severe hydrological pressure is more strongly associated with higher sovereign borrowing costs than moderate water stress. The analysis further suggests that financial development, renewable energy deployment, and stronger institutional quality are associated with a weaker relationship between water scarcity and sovereign risk premiums, highlighting the potential importance of domestic resilience capacity. These findings remain broadly robust across alternative sovereign risk measures, alternative water scarcity proxies, dynamic specifications, and smooth-transition nonlinear models. This study contributes to the emerging literature on environmental macro-financial linkages by providing evidence that water scarcity may be increasingly relevant for sovereign financing conditions, particularly in economies facing severe and persistent hydrological stress. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 2609 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Production Through Anaerobic Digestion of Typical Biodegradable Residues: LCA Comparison to Composting and Incineration in a Small and Larger Country

by Vasiliki P. Aravani, Shiya Wang, Wen Wang and Vagelis G. Papadakis

Resources 2026, 15(6), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060078 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 331

Abstract

The main sources of biodegradable waste come from agriculture and municipal waste, with animal manure and food waste (FW) being the most representative respectively. Most of this waste remains still unexploited, while there is skepticism regarding the environmental footprint of various methods of [...] Read more.

The main sources of biodegradable waste come from agriculture and municipal waste, with animal manure and food waste (FW) being the most representative respectively. Most of this waste remains still unexploited, while there is skepticism regarding the environmental footprint of various methods of their utilization. This work provides a reliable comparative environmental evaluation using life cycle assessment (LCA). In the present work, LCA applied to compare two alternative scenarios regarding the management of (a) sheep and goat manure and (b) FW. Alternative scenarios for sheep and goat manure include composting for fertilizer and energy production via anaerobic digestion (AD), while FW scenarios include incineration and energy production through AD. In both case studies, the AD scenario generates environmental benefits (expressed as negative damage) across all three damage categories namely resource scarcity, human health and ecosystem quality. Regarding sheep and goat manure, the most significant effect of AD is on human health (−0.016 Pt) while in the scenarios of FW the superior performance of AD is particularly evident in the ecosystem quality (−0.21 Pt). Both case studies reached the same conclusion pointing out that the use of sustainable technologies for managing agricultural and municipal waste mitigates the environmental impacts. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 291 KB

Open AccessArticle

Oil Prices, Monetary Conditions, and Growth Dynamics in Saudi Arabia: Evidence from an ARDL–ECM and VAR Approach

by Ihsen Abid

Resources 2026, 15(6), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060077 - 8 Jun 2026

Viewed by 536

Abstract

This study examines the dynamic relationships among oil prices, monetary conditions, and nominal GDP growth in Saudi Arabia, with particular attention to short-run adjustment and long-run equilibrium patterns in an oil-dependent economy operating under a fixed exchange-rate regime. Rather than identifying structural monetary [...] Read more.

This study examines the dynamic relationships among oil prices, monetary conditions, and nominal GDP growth in Saudi Arabia, with particular attention to short-run adjustment and long-run equilibrium patterns in an oil-dependent economy operating under a fixed exchange-rate regime. Rather than identifying structural monetary policy shocks, the study focuses on reduced-form dynamic associations between market-based monetary indicators, oil-price movements, and nominal economic activity. Using a high-frequency monthly dataset covering key macroeconomic variables, the analysis employs the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) framework to estimate both short-run dynamics and long-run equilibrium relationships. An Error Correction Model (ECM) is used to capture the speed of adjustment toward equilibrium, while Granger causality tests assess short-term predictive linkages. The empirical results reveal that monetary indicators, particularly interest rates and money supply, exhibit lagged and non-monotonic associations with nominal GDP growth, reflecting delayed transmission under exchange-rate constraints. Oil-price movements emerge as a dominant driver, showing strong contemporaneous and lagged associations with growth, whereas inflation and exchange-rate movements display limited short-run predictive relevance. The ECM results indicate relatively rapid convergence toward long-run equilibrium, suggesting efficient adjustment dynamics. Granger causality findings further confirm the short-term predictive content of key macroeconomic variables. By integrating high-frequency data with ARDL–ECM estimation, VAR-based robustness checks, and sensitivity analysis, the study provides evidence on how oil-price movements, liquidity conditions, and interest-rate dynamics jointly shape growth fluctuations in Saudi Arabia. Full article

33 pages, 1713 KB

Open AccessArticle

Green Finance Energy Transition and Critical Raw Materials: An Integrated Framework for Resource Sustainability

by Nesrine Gafsi and Ines Belgacem

Resources 2026, 15(6), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060076 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 288

Abstract

The transition toward low-carbon economic systems has increased the strategic importance of green finance while simultaneously intensifying dependence on critical raw materials (CRMs) required for renewable energy technologies, energy storage systems, and electrification infrastructure. Despite the growing relevance of these interconnections, existing research [...] Read more.

The transition toward low-carbon economic systems has increased the strategic importance of green finance while simultaneously intensifying dependence on critical raw materials (CRMs) required for renewable energy technologies, energy storage systems, and electrification infrastructure. Despite the growing relevance of these interconnections, existing research has generally examined green finance, energy transition dynamics, and critical raw material sustainability separately, providing limited evidence on their combined interactions. This study develops an integrated finance–energy–resource framework to investigate the relationships among green finance, energy transition, and CRM sustainability. Using an unbalanced panel dataset covering 32 advanced and emerging economies over the period 2010–2022, the analysis employs the System Generalized Method of Moments (System GMM) estimator to address endogeneity, persistence effects, and unobserved heterogeneity. The empirical framework incorporates indicators of green finance, energy transition, CRM sustainability, and CRM supply risk, together with macroeconomic and institutional control variables. The results indicate that green finance contributes positively to CRM sustainability by supporting sustainable investment, resource efficiency, and environmentally responsible development. At the same time, the expansion of energy transition systems increases demand pressure on critical raw materials and may intensify supply-chain vulnerabilities. The findings further suggest the existence of feedback effects between resource constraints and financial systems through investment risk and capital allocation mechanisms. These results highlight the need for integrated policy approaches that align sustainable finance, energy transition objectives, and critical raw material governance to support long-term sustainability transitions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

33 pages, 1538 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Advances in the Green Extraction of Phytochemicals from Fruit Matrices Using Emerging Technologies and Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents: A Systematic Review

by Jhoseline Stayce Guillén Sánchez, Henry Javier-Ninahuaman, Rebeca Salvador-Reyes, Gary Rojas-Hurtado, Grimaldo Quispe, Brenda Yauri and Anhell Quispe-Calla

Resources 2026, 15(6), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060075 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 488

Abstract

In accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a systematic review was conducted on the green extraction of bioactive compounds from fruit matrices through the integration of emerging technologies and natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES). Studies published between 2015 and 2025 were analyzed from [...] Read more.

In accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a systematic review was conducted on the green extraction of bioactive compounds from fruit matrices through the integration of emerging technologies and natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES). Studies published between 2015 and 2025 were analyzed from databases such as Scopus and Web of Science, and 63 relevant studies were selected following a rigorous methodological evaluation process. The results demonstrate a growing scientific interest in the use of NADES due to their sustainable nature, low toxicity, and high extraction efficiency, particularly when combined with technologies such as ultrasound and microwaves. These synergies enhance yield, reduce energy consumption, and preserve the stability of polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of NADES, such as polarity and viscosity, together with operational factors, such as temperature and water content, significantly influence process efficiency, indicating that the combination of NADES with emerging technologies represents a promising alternative for agri-food valorization with potential application as functional ingredients and in clean-label systems. Moreover, it is established as a robust strategy for the development of sustainable extraction processes with industrial scale-up prospects. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 2359 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contour-Based Trenches as a Nature-Based Solution for Soil Restoration and Potential Managed Aquifer Recharge in Guerrero, Mexico

by Javier Saldaña Almazán, Sirilo Suastegui Cruz, Marco Polo Calderón Arellanes, Enrique Moreno Mendoza and Ana Patricia Leyva Zuñiga

Resources 2026, 15(6), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060074 - 1 Jun 2026

Viewed by 368

Abstract

Land degradation and declining groundwater availability threaten the sustainability of rural livelihoods across semi-arid regions. This study evaluates the hydrological performance of contour-based trenches as a low-cost and replicable nature-based solution (Nbs) for soil restoration, runoff regulation, and potential distributed managed aquifer recharge [...] Read more.

Land degradation and declining groundwater availability threaten the sustainability of rural livelihoods across semi-arid regions. This study evaluates the hydrological performance of contour-based trenches as a low-cost and replicable nature-based solution (Nbs) for soil restoration, runoff regulation, and potential distributed managed aquifer recharge (MAR) in Guerrero, Mexico. The structures were installed on 12% slopes and designed using a simplified water balance criterion based on trench storage capacity, runoff coefficient, and representative rainfall events. Each trench was constructed along contour lines with overflow notches and connecting micro-trenches to improve hydraulic continuity, reduce erosion, and enhance infiltration opportunities under degraded field conditions. After one year of field monitoring, the trenches reached an average filling efficiency of approximately 90% per effective rainfall event, with estimated infiltration rates ranging from 0.0069 to 0.011 L·s⁻¹. Soil moisture in the upper soil layer showed a relative increase of approximately 10–18% compared to adjacent untreated areas, while visible reductions in runoff velocity, sediment transport, and surface erosion were observed across the treated plot. Based on trench storage capacity, observed infiltration behavior, and assumed deep percolation fractions, the potential induced recharge was estimated between 216 and 360 m³·yr⁻¹ (43–72 mm·yr⁻¹). These values represent indicative plot-scale estimates rather than direct measurements of aquifer recharge, since no tracer studies or piezometric validation were performed. The results demonstrate that contour-based trenches contribute not only to infiltration enhancement and runoff control, but also to short-term soil restoration and improved water availability in rainfed agricultural systems. Their low-cost implementation, combined with community-based maintenance and adaptation to local environmental conditions, makes them a viable complementary strategy for strengthening decentralized water management, soil resilience, and climate adaptation in semi-arid rural landscapes. However, long-term effectiveness remains dependent on maintenance continuity, institutional support, and local governance conditions. Further multi-year monitoring and direct hydrogeological validation are recommended to improve the design and replicability of decentralized MAR systems. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 1515 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Probability Assessment of Strategic and Total Rare Earth Element Supply for the EU Under the EU Critical Raw Materials Act

by Melike Yildirim Ayyildiz, Jasemin Ayse Ölmez and Christoph Hilgers

Resources 2026, 15(6), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060073 - 25 May 2026

Viewed by 761

Abstract

The European Union aims to reduce its dependency on imported critical and strategic raw materials. Therefore, the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act defines benchmarks for strategic raw materials on domestic mining, recycling, refining, and the diversification of import sources to be achieved by [...] Read more.

The European Union aims to reduce its dependency on imported critical and strategic raw materials. Therefore, the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act defines benchmarks for strategic raw materials on domestic mining, recycling, refining, and the diversification of import sources to be achieved by 2030. This study investigates the feasibility of the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act mining benchmark for strategic rare earth elements, which aims for 10% of the EU’s annual demand to be met through domestic mining. We assess whether domestic rare earth element supply from mining within the EU can meet the projected future demand for 2030 and 2050. The study also examines the extent to which the total demand of rare earth elements for the EU could be met proportionally. An uncertainty estimation with Monte Carlo simulation with consideration of uniform and Gaussian distribution, based on individual project development stages, highlights that reaching the 10% benchmark for strategic rare earth elements is theoretically likely by 2030; however, with an incorporated nine-year lead time, meeting the 2030 benchmark is no longer feasible. Furthermore, obstacles such as social license to operate, mining permits and appeals in practice may additionally prolong procedures. The study concludes that in order to mine domestic rare earth elements and to reduce import dependency, the EU needs to invest in geological exploration and mining. Moreover, establishing a whole rare earth elements supply chain from mining to refining is highly complex and, as illustrated by the Japan–Australia partnership, which required 14 years without including the geological exploration phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Resources and Circular Economy (KLIREC)—Interdependencies, Synergies and Tradeoffs)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 734 KB

Open AccessReview

Bio-Based Construction Materials in the Context of the EU Bioeconomy: Overcoming Systemic Barriers to Mainstream Adoption

by Fernando Pacheco Torgal

Resources 2026, 15(6), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060072 - 22 May 2026

Viewed by 878

Abstract

The construction sector must simultaneously meet rising global demand and cut embodied carbon deeply enough to satisfy European Green Deal and Bioeconomy Strategy targets—two pressures that conventional petrochemical-derived materials are poorly placed to resolve. Bio-based alternatives offer a credible path: they sequester carbon, [...] Read more.

The construction sector must simultaneously meet rising global demand and cut embodied carbon deeply enough to satisfy European Green Deal and Bioeconomy Strategy targets—two pressures that conventional petrochemical-derived materials are poorly placed to resolve. Bio-based alternatives offer a credible path: they sequester carbon, carry lower embodied emissions, improve indoor air quality, and fit naturally within circular economy models. Yet they remain marginal in specification practice. This paper reviews the evidence on bio-based construction materials and maps the barriers that keep them there. The analysis organises these barriers into four levels—structural, economic, technical, and enabling—and traces the conditional relationships between them, with direct consequences for how policy interventions should be sequenced. The strategic case for this transition extends beyond environmental policy: the 2026 Strait of Hormuz disruption is used here as a scenario to show how dependent European construction is on fossil-derived material inputs, and how exposed that dependence leaves the sector to geopolitical supply shocks. The principal obstacles to adoption prove to be institutional and economic rather than technical—regulatory fragmentation, absent harmonised standards, fragile supply chains, and market structures that systematically undervalue bio-based solutions. The paper concludes that meaningful scaling requires coordinated action across governance, market design, and industrial policy, and that material and performance advances alone will not deliver it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Use of Biological Resources: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Green Energy Finance and Agricultural Performance in MENA Region: Structural Pathways Toward Sustainability

by Ihsen Abid

Resources 2026, 15(6), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources15060071 - 22 May 2026

Viewed by 672

Abstract

This study investigates the macroeconomic, institutional, and energy-related determinants of agricultural value added in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries over the period 2000–2023, with particular emphasis on whether international clean energy finance operates as a conditionally effective driver depending on energy [...] Read more.

This study investigates the macroeconomic, institutional, and energy-related determinants of agricultural value added in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries over the period 2000–2023, with particular emphasis on whether international clean energy finance operates as a conditionally effective driver depending on energy endowments. Using a panel fixed-effects framework with Driscoll–Kraay standard errors to address cross-sectional dependence, heteroskedasticity, and serial correlation, the analysis incorporates an interaction term between clean energy finance and an oil-exporting dummy to capture structural heterogeneity. Robustness is ensured through Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (PCSEs), Granger causality tests, and System GMM estimation. The findings reveal that GDP per capita and clean energy finance are positively and significantly associated with agricultural value added, while trade openness negatively affects the sector. Importantly, the interaction results indicate strong asymmetry: the positive contribution of clean energy finance is concentrated in non-oil economies but becomes weak or insignificant in oil-exporting countries, consistent with diminishing marginal returns in energy-abundant contexts. Inflation captures nominal price effects, while short-run dynamics suggest the presence of adjustment costs. Overall, the study highlights that clean energy finance acts as a structurally conditional mechanism, offering nuanced and policy-relevant insights for sustainable agricultural transformation in MENA economies. Full article

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Resources, Volume 15, Issue 6 (June 2026) – 12 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI