Kong Yingda, Cheng Xuanying, and Their “Others”: A Synchronic Contextualization of Visions of the Sage
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Context: The Three Teachings at the Imperial Court in Early Tang Dynasty
3. Texts
4. Interpretation and Demarcation: The Sage Who Embodies Dao
4.1. The Daoist Cheng Xuanying’s Vision of the Sage Embodying Dao
‘Returning’ (fan 反) means coming back. ‘Movement’ (dong 動) means compassion. The sage, who has attained Dao, even goes beyond the three highest heavenly spheres.14 But because he is moved by compassion and wants to save the beings, he returns from the Three [Clarity-Heavens and the Great] Veil-[Heaven],15 and then mixes his [manifest] traces into [the world of] being. He preaches according to the opportunities and manifests [his traces] in response [to the needs of the beings]. This is why the first part of the Daode jing [chap. 25] says: “[Going] far means returning”.
反, 還也。動, 悲也。得道聖人超淩三境, 但以慈悲救物, 反入三羅, 混跡有中, 赴機應化。故上經云遠曰反。
This says that for the sage who embodies Dao the sphere of objective phenomena and the subjective wisdom are in perfect consonance. Subject and object are united in emptiness, going beyond these four statements [of the tetra lemma], and leaving behind those hundred negations.17 Therefore he obtains a long vision and long life.18
言體道聖人境智冥符, 能所虛會, 超茲四句, 離彼百非, 故得久視長生。
The sage (shengren 聖人) is a man who embodies the Dao and tallies with the true. It is also said that “the sage is one who is correct”.20 Being able to make himself correct, he is also able to correct others in the same way. This is why he is called sage. “Govern” (zhi 治) means to regulate. This means that this sage, compassionately [wanting to] save the beings, passes on the wondrous teaching of non-action, and governs the multitude of beings who have desires.
聖人者, 體道契真之人也。亦言聖者正也, 能自正己, 兼能正他, 故名為聖。治, 理也。即此聖人, 慈悲救物, 轉無為之妙法, 治有欲之蒼生。
Demarcation of Daoism versus Confucianism in the Daode Jing Yishu
Erudition and eloquence can only augment worldly wisdom, since this is not embodying Dao, the principle will eventually fail. Middle (zhong 中) is the One Dao. Erudition is sufficient for [understanding] the worldly phenomena (youwei 有爲); keeping the middle [instead] is long life and enduring vision.
博學多言, 唯益世智, 既不體道, 理歸於窮。中, 一道也, 多聞適足有為, 守中即長生久視。
Since outside there is no sphere of desirable objects, inside there is also no subjective mind that can desire. Mind and objects are both forgotten, therefore this mind is no mind. Since the former proposition [showed that] the external realm is illusory, in the later proposition also the mind is [correspondingly] empty.
既外無可欲之境, 內無能欲之心, 心境兩忘, 故即心無心也, 前既境幻, 後又心虛也。
Even though this mind is no mind, yet in reality there is the numinous reflecting. So the text says that the marvelous embodiment is empty and still, yet it comes to respond without fail.
雖複即心無心, 而實有靈照, 乃言妙體虛寂, 而赴感無差, 德充於內, 故言實其腹也。
4.2. The Confucian Interpretationof the Sage Embodying Dao in the Zhouyi zhengyi
Demarcation of Confucianism versus Daoism and Buddhism in the Zhouyi zhengyi
“As far as the Pattern of the Changes is difficult to exhaustingly [explain], even though it is “mysterious and mysterious again”,25 when it comes to handing down models and creating standards, then it [the pattern of the changes, yili] is Being (you), and its teaching [concerns] Being. When it comes to discussing “residing in inner and outer emptiness”26, and the talk of “following the subject or following the object”27, these are meanings that then move into Buddhism, they are not something that is taught at the doors of Confucius. They turn their back on the original [text of the classic] and go against the commentary [of the recognized interpreters, like Wang Bi] as well.28
夫易理難窮雖復玄之又玄至於垂範作則便是有而教有若論住內住外之空就能就所之說斯乃義涉於釋氏非 為教於孔門也既背其本又違於注 (Zhouyi zhengyi xu, p. 6)
The reciprocal process of yin and yang is called the Dao. …That which allows Dao to continue to operate is human goodness [shan], and that which allows it to bring things to completion is human nature [xing]. […] …It functions for the common folk on a daily basis, yet they are unaware of it. This is why the Dao of the noble man is a rare thing! … It is manifested in its benevolence but hidden within its functioning. … It arouses the myriad things but does not share the anxieties of the sage … As replete virtue and great enterprise, the Dao is indeed perfect!
一陰一陽之謂道, 繼之者善也, 成之者性也。[…]。百姓日用而不知, 故君子之道鮮矣。顯諸仁, 藏諸用, 鼓萬物而不與聖人同懮, 盛德大業至矣哉。[…]
“The myriad things follow it and thereby transform, this is why the text says “It arouses the myriad things”. (Lynn 1994, p. 54) Even though the sage takes embodying Dao as his function, he cannot get to the point where he takes nothingness as embodiment;31 therefore, when he smoothly moves everywhere in the world, there are the traces of his operating.
注萬物由之以 化故曰鼔萬物也聖人雖體道以為用未能至無以為體故順通天下則有經營之跡也(Zhouyi zhengyi 7, p. 78b)
The Zhengyi says: Speaking about merit and function of Dao, it has the capacity to arouse the ten thousand beings and cause them to transform and grow [and teach and raise them]33 therefore it says “rouse the ten thousand things”.
正義曰: 言道之功用, 能鼓動萬物, 使之化育, 故云「鼓萬物」。
When the sage transforms the things, he cannot take complete nothingness as his embodiment, [because transforming things] he still has the concern of operational managing; the Dao indeed has empty nothingness as its function, no handling of affairs and no active interference, it is not the same function as that of the sage, who has the concern of operational managing.
聖人化物, 不能全無以為體, 猶有經營之憂; 道則虛無為用, 無事無為, 不與聖人同用, 有經營之憂也。
Zhengyi says: [When the commentary] says “even though the sages take embodying Dao as their function”, it means that the sage cannot handle affairs without having concerns. The Dao is without [intentional] mind and without [visible] traces, [however,] the sage also has no [intentional] mind, [but] he has [visible] traces, the sage can embody close to the Dao, but his traces take existence (you) as a function.
正義曰: 云「聖人雖體道以為用」者, 言聖人不能無憂之事。道則無心無跡, 聖人則亦無心有跡, 聖人能體附於道, 其跡以有為用。
When [Han Kangbo] says “[this does] not [mean that] they are able to take complete nothingness as their substance” he means that with regard to Dao, both mind and traces are nothingness, this is its embodying complete nothingness; with regard to the sage, he has no intentional mind [but] has traces, and because his traces are existent (you) and his mind is nothingness (wu), this means he cannot embody complete nothingness as his substance.
云「未能全無以為體」者, 道則心跡俱無, 是其全無以為體; 聖人則無心有跡, 是跡有而心無, 是不能全無以為體。
When he says “therefore as they smoothly move everywhere in the world, there are the traces of their operating”, this means that the sage can smoothly penetrate the patterns of the whole world, even though inside there is no intentional mind, outside there are the traces of his operating and managing, thus there is concern. With regard to Dao, mind and traces are both nothingness, it has neither concerns nor worries, therefore he says it does not have the same concerns as the sage.
云「故順通天下, 則有經營之跡」者, 言聖人順通天下之理, 內則雖是無心, 外則有經營之跡, 則有憂也。道則心跡俱無, 無憂無患, 故云「不與聖人同憂」也。
5. Conclusions: Discourses on Sagehood between Dao and the World
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1 | See (Bender 2019, pp. 78–79) for a concise survey of Wujing zhengyi scholarship. |
2 | |
3 | This is documented in the apologetic and historiographical literature, like, e.g., Hongming ji T 2102, Guang Hongming ji T 2103, Shilao zhi in Wei shu, chap. 34, Bianzheng lun T 2110. |
4 | The Shidian 釋奠 sacrifice was a ceremony dedicated to the former sage and former teacher, Duke of Zhou and Confucius, or, in some versions, Confucius and his disciple Yan Hui. The ceremony is mentioned in the Liji, j. 8 (“Wenwang shi zi” 文王世子, 20, pp. 1405c and 1410a). Tang Gaozu participated in this ceremony 623, 624 and 625 (McMullen 1988, p. 32). |
5 | “Ling Daoshi zai Seng qian zhao“ 令道士在僧前詔, Quan Tang wen 6, pp. 6b–7b. See also Ji gujin Fo Dao lunheng, T 2104, 3, p. 382 and Guang hongming ji, T 2103, 25, p. 283c. |
6 | See Wei Zheng’s Laozi zhiyao, Yan Shigu’s Xuanyan xinji ming lao bu, and the slightly later commentary of the Daoist Li Rong 李荣, Daode zhenjing zhu 道德眞經注 DZ 722, also in Meng (2001, pp. 553–674). |
7 | The debates surrounding this translation are recorded in Ji gujin Fo Dao lunheng (T 2104, 3, pp. 386b–387b, cf. Pelliot 1912; Zhang 2018, p. 85f). It remains unclear what became of the project. |
8 | Compare here Kotyk (2019, p. 535), who emphasizes that Tang Taizong’s sponsorship of Xuanzang’s translation was most likely motivated by political expediency rather than by an appreciation of Buddhism. Kotyk shows that Yancong’s biography of Xuanzang (Da Tang Daci’en si sanzang fashi zhuan 大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, T 2053), which implies Taizong had a change of heart and, as a result of meeting Xuanzang, came to believe in Buddhism, should not be trusted on the matter of Taizong’s attitude to Buddhism, because the text was written under Empress Wu Zetian with the aim to bolster Xuanzang’s reputation. |
9 | Daode jing xujue yishu kaiti, see Assandri (2021b, pp. 405–6). Nanhua zhenjing zhushu, DZ 745, Yi liuyan qiongji tu 易流演窮寂圖 (lost); his commentary to the Scripture of Salvation is contained in Yuanshi wuliang duren miaojing sizhu DZ 87. The Yuan dynasty Dongxuan lingbao jiutian sheng shen zhang jing zhu DZ 398, 0, p. 1a, mentions a lost commentary of Cheng Xuanying to the Dongxuan lingbao jiutian sheng shen zhang jing. |
10 | See Bender (2019, p. 77): They were replaced by the Neo-Confucian commentaries in 1315. |
11 | Buddha was also designated a sage. See e.g., Zhi Daolin, “Shijiawen foxiang zan” 釋迦文佛像讚in Guang hongming ji T 2103, 15, p. 195c, where Buddha is called a great sage (dasheng 大聖), or Ji gujin FoDao lunheng 集古今佛道論衡 T 2104, 4, p. 388a18, which cites the Buddhist Huili in a court debate held in 658 speaking about “our Tathāgatha, the great sage” (我如來大聖). |
12 | In his sub-commentary to the Zhuangzi, Cheng uses expressions like hunji renjian 混迹人間 (e.g., chap. 4, DZ 745, 5, p. 52a); hun ji tong chen 混迹同塵 (chap. 1, DZ 745, 1, p. 31a), or hunji chensu 混跡塵俗 (chap. 2, DZ 745, 3, p. 30a), or else ji ben ji ji, 即本即迹 (chap. 1, DZ 745, 1, p. 33a), which are in line with his interpretation of the traces in his Daode jing commentary, quite often. This interpretation of the term “traces” differs markedly from Guo Xiang’s 郭象 (ca. 252–312) earlier xuanxue interpretation. Guo Xiang had used the image to differentiate the sage and the classics, which are “mere traces, but not that which has left the traces” (Nanhua zhenjing zhushu, chap. 33 Tianxia 天下, DZ 745, 35, p. 5a). This differentiation of “traces” (interpreted as Confucian social institutions, including the classics) and “that which has left the traces” (interpreted as the sages) allowed him to criticizes Confucian social institutions without extending the critiques to the sages who established them (cf. Ziporyn 2003, p. 32). The conceptual pair traces/origin underwent a shift of meaning in different Buddhist interpretations. The Buddhist Sengzhao僧肇 (ca. 384–414) used the conception of “traces” and “origin” in the exegesis of the Vimalakīrti sutra. In his preface to his commentary (Zhu Weimojie jing 注維摩詰經, T 1775) he refers to the miracles that occur in the scripture as traces; they are the responses of the sages in order to explain the inconceivable. He emphasizes the interdependence of “trace” and “origin”, the soteriological function of the traces, and the ultimate unity of trace and origin in the inconceivable: “Since the dark gate [of the inconceivable] is difficult to explain, the sages responded in various ways. If there is no fundamental origin, there is nothing to bring down the traces [or outward manifestations], if there are no trace manifestations, there is nothing to make the fundamental origin manifest. Even though origin and traces are different, the inconceivable is one”. 然幽關難啟。聖應不同。非本無 以垂跡。非跡無以顯本。本跡雖殊而不思 議一也. (T 1775, 1, p. 327b). See Baggio (2019, p. 122) for a detailed discussion of the concept of origin and traces in Sengzhao’s exegesis of the Vimalakīrti sutra. Closer to Cheng’s own time, Tiantai Zhiyi 天台智顗 (538–592) in his Miao Fahua jing xuanyi (妙法蓮華經玄義T 1716, 7, p. 764c), presented a complex analysis of the relation of “origin” and “traces” with six different explanations. The fourth interpretation explains origin and traces in terms of substance (ti 體) and function (yong 用), and relates this to the dharma-body (fashen 法身) and the response-body (yingshen 應身) of the Buddha. Tiantai Zhiyi, like Sengzhao, emphasizes the interdependence of origin and trace: “Fourth, explaining origin and traces in terms of substance and function: initially understanding the principles through practice and attaining the dharma-body is the origin. Because one first attained the dharma body, therefore the substance gives rise to the function of the response body. Through the response body the dharma-body becomes manifest. Though origin and traces may differ, in their inconceivability they are one. The text says: ‘Since my attainment of Buddhahood, it was like this for an immensely long time, but I have spoken in this way solely for the skillful guidance and transformation of sentient beings.’” 四、約體用明本迹者, 由昔最初 修行契理,證於法身為本, 初得法身本故, 即體起應身之用, 由於應身得顯法身; 本迹雖殊, 不思議一。文云:「吾從成佛已來, 甚 大久遠若斯, 但以方便教化眾生, 作如此 說。」 (Fahua xuanyi T 1716, 7, p. 764c6). Cheng Xuanying’s understanding of the term “traces” in the Daode jing yishu and in the places cited above follow rather this Buddhist line of interpretation of the terms. However, Cheng works in a few places also with Guo Xiang’s differentiation between the traces and that which has left the traces (suoyi ji 所以迹); specifically in the Tiandao 天道 chapter (Nanhua zhenjing zhushu, chap. 13): (Zhuangzi:) “故書曰: 有形有名。形名者, 古人有之, 而非所以先也。” Hence the book says, ‘There are forms and there are names.’ Forms and names were known to antiquity, but the men of old gave them no precedence”. (Watson 2013, p. 102). Cheng comments: “〔疏〕先, 本也。言形名等法, 蓋聖人之應迹耳, 不得已而用之, 非所以迹也。” […] Precedence refers to the origin. This says that form, name, and such dharmas must refer only to the responding traces of the sage, one uses them (form and names) necessarily, [but] they are not that which produces the trace”. (Nanhua zhenjing zhushu, chap. 13, DZ 745, 15, p. 23a). This passage seems to agree with Guo Xiang’s interpretation of traces. The second passage comments on the discussion of Laozi and Shi Chengzhi: “老子曰: 夫巧知神聖之人, 吾自以為脫焉。” Lao Tzu said, ‘Artful wisdom, the spirit-like sage—I hope I have shuffled off categories of that sort!’” (Watson 2013, p. 105). Cheng Xuanying comments “(疏): 夫巧智神聖之人者, 蓋是迹, 非所以迹也。汝言我欲於聖人乎?我於此久以免脫, 汝何為乃謂我是聖非聖邪?老君欲抑成綺之譏心, 故示以息迹歸本也。郭注云, 脫, 過去也。謂我於聖已得過免而去也。” The person who has artful wisdom and is a spirit-like sage, this must refer to the traces, not to that which produces the trace. You say I want to be a sage? I have given up this thing a long time ago—so why do you say I am a sage or I am not a sage? Lord Lao wanted to raise Cheng Shizhi’s disrespectful heart/mind, therefore he showed [how to] stop the trace and return to the origin. Guo Xiang’s commentary says: “give up” refers to the past. This means that I have already reached sage-(hood) and have left it”. (Nanhua zhenjing zhushu, ch. 13, DZ 745, 15, p. 33b). Here Cheng seems to indicate that the distinction of the trace and that by which the trace is produced serves a paedagogical scope, as also the Buddhists had argued. |
13 | The three bodies of the Buddha are the dharma-body (fashen 法身) as the abstract ultimate, the sambhoga (reward)-body (baoshen 報身) as the manifestations of the Buddha in paradise, and the nirmāṇa (response)-body (yingshen 應身) as the manifestation to save the beings. Cheng uses the terms yingshen (應身) and zhenshen (真身) as designations of the two bodies (corresponding to response-body and dharma-body) in his commentary to chapter 36 of the Daode jing: “With regard to the sage’s responding in many different ways, his adaptations to the capacities [of students] are many. […] For this reason, he has the two bodies, the truth body and the response body, and the two wisdoms, expedient wisdom and real wisdom”. 夫聖應多途, 逗機匪一 […] 故有真應兩身, 權實二智. (Assandri 2021b, p. 185, cf. also pp. 25–26 and Assandri 2009, p. 179f). |
14 | Sanjing 三境 refers to sanqing 三清, the highest heavens of Shangqing Daoism. |
15 | Sanluo 三羅, cf. Miller (1995, p. 127), is a short form of sanqing daluo, the Three Clarities and the Grand Veil Heaven. |
16 | See for example ch. 6, commenting on the true man, who “ate without savoring” (其食不甘) (Watson 2013, p. 42), Cheng writes: “He mixes his traces with the human world, like worldly dust, but when he eats he does not indulge in rich tastes, therefore he doesn’t know [when something is] sweet and refreshing”. 混迹人間, 同塵而食, 不耽滋味,故不知甘美. (Nanhua zhenjing zhushu, ch. 6, DZ 745, 7, p. 7a). The manifestation of the sage in the world is purely a “response” to the needs of the beings, it is not tied to any intention or volition of the sage; therefore the sage “does not know sweet and refreshing tastes”, his mind does not differentiate. For further occurrences of the expression see above, note 12. |
17 | Four statements (siju 四句) and a hundred negations (baifei 百非) are Buddhist Madhyamaka technical terms for the process of continued negation of the tetra lemma, cf. Assandri (2009, pp. 92–93). |
18 | See Daode jing, chap. 59. |
19 | Jizang answers the question if Laozi’s and Buddha’s Dao could be considered the same with reference to the four statements: “The Dao of Laozi points to empty nonbeing; the Dao of Śākyamuni [instead] surpasses [the realm in which] the four statements [can be applied]. [With this] there is already a distinction [with regard to the two teachings] of superficial and profound, how could the substance be the same?” 伯陽之道道指虛無。牟尼之道道超四句。淺深既懸。體何由一 (Sanlun xuanyi, T 1852, p. 2a). |
20 | The definition 聖者正也, refers to definitions used in Buddhist contexts, see e.g., Faxian’s early fifth century translation of the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra 大般泥洹經, T 376, 5, p. 888a, where the term sheng is defined in the context of sagely wisdom (聖智): “Sage (sheng) means correct, it can make the moral standards (fadu) correct and everywhere set up correct rules and ceremonies, this is its meaning”. (聖者正也,能正法度行處律儀及世間法度,是其義也). The expression appears also in Jizang’s Shengman baoku 勝鬘寶窟, T 1744, 3, p. 66a. |
21 | Fo shuo daban nihuan jing 佛説大般泥洹經, T 376, 5, p. 888a. |
22 | Miaofa lianhuajing xuanyi 妙法蓮華經玄義, T 1716, 4, p. 728a; Miaofa lianhua jing wenju 妙法蓮華經文句, T 1718, 3, p. 37c, both by Tiantai Zhiyi 智顗, and Shengman baoku 勝鬘寶窟, T 1744, 3, p. 66a, by Jizang 吉藏. |
23 | A search for the expression “聖者正也” in the Kanseki database (kanripo.org), which contains in addition to the Buddhist and Daoist canon also the Siku quanshu 四庫全書 and Sibu congkan 四部叢刊 compilations, and thus allows for a broad search in Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist texts, confirms that the occurrences of this definition for the term shengren before the mid- seventh century are found only in Buddhist texts: URL: https://www.kanripo.org/search?query=%E8%81%96%E8%80%85%E6%AD%A3&sort= (accessed on 6 January 2024). |
24 | Cheng’s reading follows the 5000 Word Edition of the Daode jing. |
25 | Xuan zhi you xuan 玄之又玄 cites the first chapter of the Daode jing, and it is the eponym of chongxuan 重玄 philosophy, see Assandri (2009, pp. 85–89). |
26 | This refers to a discussion in the Mahāprajñāpāramitā sutras, see e.g., Kumarajivas translation Mahabanruo boluomi jing 摩訶般若波羅蜜經, T 223, 1, p. 219c8, Paramārtha’s Shiba konglun 十八空論, T 1616, p. 861a15-18. The terms figure also in the version translated by Xuanzang in 660 CE, see e.g., Dabanruo boluo miduo jing 大般若波羅蜜多經 T 220, 4, p. 38a1-8. |
27 | The terms suo 所and neng能 refer here to subject and object. The distinction was particularly important with regard to theories of cognition, but applied also in other fields. The expressions jiuneng 就能 and jiusuo 就所 appear for example in Tiantai Zhiyi’s Miaofa lianhua wenju 妙法蓮華經文句 (T 1718, 8, p. 112b). The terms suo and neng are also used in Buddhist logic in the terms suochengli 所成立, probandum or thesis, and nengchengli 能成立, proof consisting of the reason and the example. See e.g., Paramārtha’s Foxing lun 佛性論, T 1610, p. 791a1, or Xuanzang’s Yujia shidi lun 瑜伽師地論 T 1579, 15, p. 356c9-10. |
28 | This might be a reference to some attempts to explain the Yijing in terms of the said Buddhist conceptions; I was unable to find such a commentary. |
29 | See also Paramārtha’s Shiba konglun 十八空論 (T 1616, p. 861a15-18) for a similar explanation. |
30 | He had met the Daoist chongxuan representative Cai Huang in a public debate in 639 (Ji gujin Fo Dao lunheng T 2104, 3, p. 383b20). |
31 | Interestingly, Wang Bi actually had on one occasion claimed the sage—Confucius—did embody nothingness: “The Sage embodied nothing (wu), so he also knew that it could not be explained in words. Thus he did not talk about it. Master Lao, by contrast, operated on the level of being (you). This is why he constantly discussed nothingness; he had to, for what he said about it always fell short”. (Lynn 1999, p. 12). |
32 | For the complex development of the use of the term “trace” between xuanxue and chongxuanxue see above, note 12. |
33 | The term huayu refers to physical transformation and growth as well as to “mental” transformation and education. |
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Assandri, F. Kong Yingda, Cheng Xuanying, and Their “Others”: A Synchronic Contextualization of Visions of the Sage. Religions 2024, 15, 256. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030256
Assandri F. Kong Yingda, Cheng Xuanying, and Their “Others”: A Synchronic Contextualization of Visions of the Sage. Religions. 2024; 15(3):256. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030256
Chicago/Turabian StyleAssandri, Friederike. 2024. "Kong Yingda, Cheng Xuanying, and Their “Others”: A Synchronic Contextualization of Visions of the Sage" Religions 15, no. 3: 256. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030256
APA StyleAssandri, F. (2024). Kong Yingda, Cheng Xuanying, and Their “Others”: A Synchronic Contextualization of Visions of the Sage. Religions, 15(3), 256. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030256