Skyscrapers in the Twenty-First Century City: A Global Snapshot
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- What are the most active regions in constructing tall buildings?
- What are the tallest buildings?
- What are the driving forces of building skyscrapers?
- Are there changes in the functionality of this building typology?
- How do new skyscraper developments alter the spatial patterns of their respective cities?
- A tall building, a high-rise, or a tower is a 50 m+ building.
- A skyscraper is a 100 m+ building.
- A supertall or ultra-tall is a 300 m+ building.
- A megatall is a 600 m+ building.
- Under construction. Once construction workers complete clearing the site and finish the foundation, the building earns the “under construction” title.
- Structurally topped out. Once the highest primary structural element of a building under construction is in place, the building earns the “structurally topped out” title.
- Architecturally topped out. When a building under construction reaches its full height both structurally and architecturally (e.g., including its spire and parapets), it earns the “architecturally topped out” title.
- On hold. When construction work is suspended indefinitely, the building will be called “on hold” if the intention to complete construction to its original design is retained.
- Never completed. When construction work is suspended and there is an intention to complete the project with different plans than original ones, the research calls this building “never completed.”
- Proposed. When a building fulfills the following criteria, it earns the “proposed” title:
- The project has a specific site, an owner, and a developer who are seriously interested in executing the project.
- The professional design and planning team has passed the conceptual design stage of the project and are progressing toward completing construction drawings.
- The project has obtained construction permission or in the process to do so.
- The announcement of the “proposed” building comes from a credible source.
- Vision. A building project earns this title when it meets one of the following three criteria:
- A project idea that does not fulfill the “proposed” criteria mentioned above.
- A “proposed” project that developers could not advance to the construction stage, or
- A project idea whom architects conceived to be an inspirational proposition.
- Demolished. When a building is destroyed by an authority at the end of its life cycle or by a nature-made (e.g., earthquake, hurricane, etc.) or a human-made disaster (e.g., terrorist attack, war, etc.), it earns the “demolished” title.
Overview of Constructing Tall Buildings
- North America: 3867
- Asia: 1593
- Europe: 968
- Oceania: 473
- South America: 286
- Africa: 132
- Middle East: 106
- Central America: 88
- Asia: 3962
- North America: 1710
- Europe: 1426
- Middle East: 647
- Oceania: 473
- South America: 350
- Central America: 201
- Africa: 50
- Asia: 48
- Middle East: 27
- North America: 6
- Europe: 5
- Oceania: 1
- South America: 0
- Central America: 0
- Africa: 0
- Asia: 117
- Middle East: 18
- North America: 12
- Europe: 4
- Oceania: 1
- Central America: 1
- South America: 0
- Africa: 0
- Asia: 111
- North America: 30
- Middle East: 16
- Europe: 4
- Central America: 3
- Oceania: 3
- Africa: 3
- South America: 1
2. Driving Forces
2.1. Population Increase and Migration
2.2. Demographic Change
2.3. Global Competition and Globalization
2.4. Urban Regeneration
2.5. Agglomeration
2.6. Land Prices
2.7. Land Preservation
2.8. Climate Change and Energy Conservation
2.9. Infrastructure and Transportation
2.10. International Finance
2.11. Air Rights
2.12. Human Aspirations and Ego
2.13. Emerging Technologies
3. Global Cities
3.1. Asia
3.1.1. Shanghai
3.1.2. Beijing
3.1.3. Shenzhen
3.1.4. Bangkok
3.2. Europe
3.2.1. London
3.2.2. Moscow
3.3. North America
3.3.1. New York City
3.3.2. Chicago
3.3.3. Miami
3.3.4. San Francisco
3.4. Oceana
3.4.1. Melbourne
3.4.2. Sydney
3.5. The Middle East
3.5.1. Dubai
3.5.2. Doha
3.5.3. Riyadh
3.5.4. Tel Aviv
3.6. South America
São Paulo
3.7. Central America
3.7.1. Panama City
3.7.2. Mexico City
3.8. Africa
Nairobi
4. Discussion
4.1. Counts
- seven cities (Doha, Riyadh, Dubai, Panama City, Shenzhen, and Beijing) have experienced a 550%–4800% increase,
- eight cities (Moscow, São Paulo, Tel Aviv, Bangkok, London, Miami, Melbourne, and Shanghai) have experienced a 226%–487% increase, and
- six cities (Mexico City, Nairobi, Sydney, Chicago, New York City, and San Francisco) have experienced a 43%–196% increase.
4.2. Heights
4.3. Mixed-Use Towers
4.4. Residential Supertalls
- Princess Tower (413 m/1356 ft)
- 23 Marina (393 m/1289 ft)
- Elite Residence (381 m/1250 ft)
- 423 Park Avenue (426 m/1396 ft)
- Eight Spruce Street (272 m/891 ft)
- 50 West (237 m/778 ft)
- 111 West 57th Street (435 m/1428 ft)
- 53 West 53rd (320 m/1050 ft)
- 220 Central Park South (290 m/950 ft)
- 15 Hudson Yards (279 m/914 ft)
- 125 Greenwich Street (274 m/898 ft)
4.5. Spatial Patterns
5. Conclusions
6. Future Research
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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2000 | 2000-2020 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Building Height (m) | Completed | Completed | Under Construction | Proposed | Visionary |
50+ | 7513 | 8827 | 2816 | 3043 | 2112 |
100+ | 3649 | 5117 | 1623 | 1266 | 1730 |
150+ | 1139 | 2715 | 1111 | 809 | 1643 |
200+ | 261 | 924 | 627 | 469 | 1108 |
250+ | 68 | 255 | 302 | 285 | 749 |
300+ | 24 | 144 | 150 | 174 | 527 |
350+ | 10 | 29 | 58 | 87 | 361 |
400+ | 4 | 16 | 32 | 51 | 259 |
450+ | 2 | 9 | 20 | 27 | 195 |
500+ | 0 | 6 | 13 | 19 | 156 |
550+ | 0 | 3 | 6 | 14 | 114 |
600+ | 0 | 3 | 2 | 8 | 93 |
# | Building Name | City | Height (m) | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Jeddah Tower | Jeddah (SA) | 1000 | 167 | 2020 |
2 | Burj Khalifa | Dubai (AE) | 828 | 163 | 2010 |
3 | Wuhan Greenland Center | Wuhan (CN) | 636 | 125 | 2018 |
4 | Shanghai Tower | Shanghai (CN) | 632 | 128 | 2015 |
5 | Merdeka PNB118 | Kuala Lumpur (MY) | 630 | 118 | 2020 |
6 | Makkah Royal C lock Tower | Mecca (SA) | 601 | 120 | 2012 |
7 | Ping An Finance Center | Shenzhen (CN) | 599 | 115 | 2017 |
8 | Goldin Finance 117 | Tianjin (CN) | 597 | 128 | 2018 |
9 | Global Financial C enter Tower 1 | Shenyang (CN) | 568 | 114 | 2018 |
10 | Lotte World Tower | Seoul (KR) | 555 | 123 | 2017 |
Continent | # of Tall Buildings Completed in 2000 | # of Tall Buildings Completed in 2020 | Under Construction | Proposed | Visionary |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa | 132 | 50 | 24 | 19 | 30 |
Asia | 1593 | 3962 | 1275 | 845 | 663 |
Central America | 88 | 201 | 27 | 20 | 34 |
Europe | 968 | 1426 | 597 | 801 | 510 |
Middle East | 106 | 647 | 220 | 131 | 200 |
North America | 3867 | 1710 | 404 | 719 | 510 |
Oceania | 473 | 465 | 127 | 500 | 109 |
South America | 286 | 350 | 53 | 29 | 56 |
Continent | Height (m) | # of Tall Buildings Completed in 2000 | # of Tall Buildings Completed in 2020 | Under Construction | Proposed | Visionary |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa | 50+ | 132 | 50 | 24 | 19 | 30 |
100+ | 83 | 30 | 13 | 6 | 25 | |
150+ | 4 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 23 | |
200+ | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 17 | |
250+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 13 | |
300+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | |
350+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 8 | |
400+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 7 | |
450+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 5 | |
500+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | |
550+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | |
600+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
Asia | 50+ | 1593 | 3788 | 1275 | 845 | 663 |
100+ | 940 | 2657 | 881 | 407 | 620 | |
150+ | 488 | 1875 | 747 | 337 | 599 | |
200+ | 95 | 645 | 463 | 234 | 461 | |
250+ | 24 | 162 | 228 | 164 | 339 | |
300+ | 10 | 48 | 117 | 111 | 262 | |
350+ | 7 | 12 | 45 | 63 | 188 | |
400+ | 3 | 9 | 24 | 40 | 134 | |
450+ | 2 | 6 | 16 | 22 | 98 | |
500+ | 0 | 3 | 11 | 16 | 80 | |
550+ | 0 | 1 | 6 | 11 | 51 | |
600+ | 0 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 41 | |
Central America | 50+ | 88 | 201 | 27 | 20 | 34 |
100+ | 36 | 136 | 20 | 13 | 31 | |
150+ | 10 | 68 | 13 | 9 | 30 | |
200+ | 1 | 26 | 6 | 4 | 19 | |
250+ | 0 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 14 | |
300+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 8 | |
350+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | |
400+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
450+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
500+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
550+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
600+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Europe | 50+ | 968 | 1426 | 597 | 801 | 510 |
100+ | 316 | 527 | 161 | 194 | 320 | |
150+ | 42 | 132 | 63 | 71 | 260 | |
200+ | 11 | 34 | 19 | 22 | 154 | |
250+ | 2 | 9 | 10 | 6 | 98 | |
300+ | 0 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 55 | |
350+ | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 31 | |
400+ | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 18 | |
450+ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 10 | |
500+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | |
550+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | |
600+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | |
Middle East | 50+ | 106 | 647 | 220 | 131 | 200 |
100+ | 47 | 426 | 117 | 50 | 159 | |
150+ | 11 | 283 | 85 | 33 | 152 | |
200+ | 4 | 135 | 65 | 27 | 105 | |
250+ | 4 | 58 | 36 | 19 | 70 | |
300+ | 3 | 27 | 18 | 16 | 59 | |
350+ | 1 | 12 | 9 | 11 | 47 | |
400+ | 0 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 34 | |
450+ | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 29 | |
500+ | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 22 | |
550+ | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 21 | |
600+ | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 16 | |
North America | 50+ | 3867 | 1710 | 404 | 719 | 510 |
100+ | 1959 | 995 | 273 | 338 | 455 | |
150+ | 522 | 267 | 134 | 214 | 436 | |
200+ | 134 | 63 | 58 | 105 | 252 | |
250+ | 35 | 18 | 22 | 61 | 157 | |
300+ | 11 | 6 | 12 | 30 | 96 | |
350+ | 2 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 58 | |
400+ | 1 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 46 | |
450+ | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 41 | |
500+ | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 34 | |
550+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 25 | |
600+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 24 | |
Oceania | 50+ | 473 | 465 | 127 | 500 | 109 |
100+ | 186 | 174 | 67 | 240 | 101 | |
150+ | 43 | 54 | 26 | 123 | 90 | |
200+ | 13 | 19 | 11 | 62 | 54 | |
250+ | 3 | 3 | 6 | 21 | 32 | |
300+ | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 17 | |
350+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 10 | |
400+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | |
450+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | |
500+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | |
550+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | |
600+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
South America | 50+ | 286 | 350 | 53 | 29 | 56 |
100+ | 137 | 182 | 39 | 21 | 54 | |
150+ | 19 | 33 | 24 | 16 | 53 | |
200+ | 2 | 2 | 12 | 9 | 46 | |
250+ | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 26 | |
300+ | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 20 | |
350+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 16 | |
400+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 12 | |
450+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 8 | |
500+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | |
550+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | |
600+ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
# | Building Name | City | Height (m) | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Jeddah Tower | Jeddah (SA) | 1000 | 167 | 2020 |
2 | Burj Khalifa | Dubai (AE) | 828 | 163 | 2010 |
3 | Makkah Royal Clock Tower | Mecca (SA) | 601 | 120 | 2012 |
4 | Entisar Tower | Dubai (AE) | 520 | 111 | 2020 |
5 | Marina 106 | Dubai (AE) | 445 | 104 | 2019 |
6 | Diamond Tower | Jeddah (SA) | 432 | 93 | 2019 |
7 | Marina 101 | Dubai (AE) | 427 | 101 | 2017 |
8 | Princess Tower | Dubai (AE) | 413 | 101 | 2012 |
9 | Al Hamra Tower | Kuwait City (KW) | 413 | 80 | 2011 |
10 | 23 Marina | Dubai (AE) | 392 | 88 | 2012 |
# | Building Name | City | Height (m) | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Wuhan Greenland Center | Wuhan | 636 | 125 | 2020 |
2 | Shanghai Tower | Shanghai | 632 | 128 | 2015 |
3 | Ping An Finance Center | Shenzhen | 599 | 115 | 2017 |
4 | Goldin Finance 117 | Tianjin | 597 | 128 | 2018 |
5 | Global Financial Center Tower 1 | Shenyang | 568 | 114 | 2018 |
6 | Guangzhou CTF Finance Center | Guangzhou | 530 | 111 | 2016 |
7 | Tianjin CTF Finance Center | Tianjin | 530 | 97 | 2018 |
8 | China Zun Tower | Beijing | 528 | 108 | 2018 |
9 | Dalian Greenland Center | Dalian | 518 | 88 | 2019 |
10 | International Commerce Center | Hong Kong | 484 | 108 | 2010 |
# | Building Name | City | Height (m) | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | One World Trade Center | New York City (US) | 541 | 94 | 2014 |
2 | Central Park Tower | New York City (US) | 472 | 95 | 2019 |
3 | 111 West 57th Street | New York City (US) | 438 | 80 | 2018 |
4 | 432 Park Avenue | New York City (US) | 426 | 85 | 2015 |
5 | 30 Hudson Yards | New York City (US) | 387 | 73 | 2019 |
6 | Vista Tower | Chicago (US) | 362 | 98 | 2020 |
7 | Comcast Technology Center | Philadelphia (US) | 342 | 59 | 2018 |
8 | Wilshire Grand Center | Los Angeles (US) | 335 | 73 | 2017 |
9 | 3 World Trade Center | New York City (US) | 329 | 69 | 2018 |
10 | Salesforce Tower | San Francisco (US) | 326 | 61 | 2018 |
# | Building Name | City | Height (m) | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Lakhta Center | St. Petersburg (RU) | 462 | 86 | 2018 |
2 | Multifunctional High-Rise Complex—Akhmat Tower | Groznyj (RU) | 435 | 102 | 2020 |
3 | Federation Towers—Vostok Tower | Moscow (RU) | 374 | 95 | 2016 |
4 | OKO—Residential Tower | Moscow (RU) | 354 | 90 | 2015 |
5 | Mercury City Tower | Moscow (RU) | 339 | 75 | 2013 |
6 | NEVA TOWERS 2 | Moscow (RU) | 338 | 77 | 2020 |
7 | Varso Tower | Warsaw (PL) | 310 | 53 | 2020 |
8 | Stalnaya Vershina | Moscow (RU) | 309 | 72 | 2015 |
9 | The Shard | London (GB) | 306 | 73 | 2013 |
10 | Capital City Moscow Tower | Moscow (RU) | 302 | 76 | 2010 |
# | Building Name | City | Height (m) | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Australia 108 | Melbourne (AU) | 317 | 100 | 2020 |
2 | Crown Sydney Hotel and Resort | Sydney (AU) | 271 | 75 | 2019 |
3 | Brisbane Sky Tower | Brisbane (AU) | 270 | 89 | 2018 |
4 | Aurora Melbourne Central | Melbourne (AU) | 269 | 88 | 2019 |
5 | 300 George Street Tower 1 | Brisbane (AU) | 262 | 81 | 2018 |
6 | 1 William Street | Brisbane (AU) | 260 | 46 | 2017 |
7 | Prima Pearl Apartments | Melbourne (AU) | 254 | 72 | 2014 |
8 | Infinity | Brisbane (AU) | 249 | 81 | 2014 |
9 | Victoria One | Melbourne (AU) | 246 | 75 | 2018 |
10 | Soleil | Brisbane (AU) | 243 | 79 | 2012 |
# | Building Name | City | Height | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Torre Costanera | Santiago (CL) | 300 | 62 | 2014 |
2 | Yacht House Residence Club by Pininfarina Tower 1 | Balneario Camboriu (BR) | 270 | 75 | 2018 |
3 | Yachthouse Residence Club by Pininfarina Tower 2 | Balneario Camboriu (BR) | 270 | 75 | 2018 |
4 | One Tower | Balneario Camboriu (BR) | 263 | 77 | 2022 |
5 | BD Bacata Torre 1 | Bogota (CO) | 260 | 67 | 2017 |
6 | La Isla Multiespacio Torre Officinas | Valencia (VE) | 244 | 55 | 2017 |
7 | Infinity Coast Tower | Balneario Camboriu (BR) | 237 | 66 | 2017 |
8 | Alvear Tower Puerto Madero | Buenos Aires (AR) | 235 | 54 | 2017 |
9 | Parque Central Torre Officinas I | Caracas (VE) | 225 | 56 | 1979 |
10 | Parque Central Torre Officinas II | Caracas (VE) | 225 | 56 | 1983 |
# | Building Name | City | Height | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Trump Ocean Club International Hotel & Tower | Panama City (PA) | 284 | 70 | 2011 |
2 | Torre Vitri | Panama City (PA) | 281 | 75 | 2012 |
3 | Torre Koi | Monterrey (MX) | 279 | 67 | 2017 |
4 | Torre Mitikah | Mexico City (MX) | 267 | 62 | - |
5 | Bicsa Financial Center | Panama City (PA) | 267 | 66 | 2013 |
6 | The Point | Panama City (PA) | 266 | 67 | 2011 |
7 | YooPanama Inspired by Starck | Panama City (PA) | 247 | 78 | 2013 |
8 | Torre Reforma | Mexico City (MX) | 246 | 56 | 2016 |
9 | Ocean Two | Panama City (PA) | 246 | 73 | 2010 |
10 | Pearl Tower | Panama City (PA) | 242 | 70 | 2011 |
# | Building Name | City | Height (m) | Floors | Completion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Carlton Center | Johannesburg (ZA) | 223 | 50 | 1973 |
2 | Britam Tower | Nairobi (KE) | 200 | 33 | 2017 |
3 | Commercial Bank of Ethiopia | Addis Ababa (ET) | 198 | 46 | 2018 |
4 | The Leonardo | Sandton (ZA) | 188 | 48 | 2018 |
5 | Ponte Tower | Johannesburg (ZA) | 173 | 54 | 1975 |
6 | JW Marriott Hotel | Casablanca (MA) | 167 | 42 | 2017 |
7 | UAP Old Mutual Tower | Nairobi (KE) | 163 | 33 | 2016 |
8 | NECOM House | Lagos (NG) | 160 | 32 | 1979 |
9 | Abuja World Trade Center Hotel Tower | Abuja (NG) | 158 | 37 | - |
10 | PSPF Commercial Tower A | Dar es Salaam (TZ) | 153 | 35 | 2014 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Jin Mao Tower | 420.5 | Shanghai Tower | 632 |
2 | International Ocean Shipping Building | 232.4 | Shanghai World Financial Center | 492 |
3 | BOCOM Financial Towers | 230.4 | Jin Mao Tower | 420.5 |
4 | Bank of China Tower | 226.1 | Shimao International Plaza | 333.3 |
5 | World Finance Tower | 212 | Zhenru Center | 330 |
6 | Xinjinqiao Mansion | 212 | Sinar Mas Center 1 | 319.6 |
7 | Golden Bell Mansion | 208 | Plaza 66 | 288.2 |
8 | Nan Zheng Mansion | 205 | Tomorrow Square | 284.6 |
9 | Lippo Plaza | 204 | Hong Kong New World Tower | 278.3 |
10 | HSBC Tower | 203.4 | Shanghai Wheelock Square | 270.5 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Jing Guang Center | 208 | Citic Tower | 528 |
2 | Capital Mansion | 183 | China World Tower | 330 |
3 | China World Trade Center I | 155 | China World Trade Center Phase 3B | 295.6 |
4 | China World Trade Center II | 155 | Fortune Financial Center | 267 |
5 | China Merchants Group Tower | 148.1 | Samsung China Headquarters | 260 |
6 | Beijing Silver Tower | 145 | Beijing Greenland Center | 260 |
7 | China Life Tower | 130.8 | Beijing Yintai Center—Park Tower | 250 |
8 | Beijing Kerry Centre Office Building | 123.5 | Sunshine Insurance Headquarters | 243 |
9 | Henderson Center | 110 | Beijing Television Center | 239 |
10 | Henderson Center | 110 | Z14 Plot Tower 1 & 2 | 238 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Shun Hing Square | 384 | Ping An Finance Center | 599.1 |
2 | SEG Plaza | 291.6 | KK100 | 441.8 |
3 | Shenzhen Special Zone Daily Tower | 260 | China Resources Tower | 392.5 |
4 | Panglin Plaza | 240 | Shum Yip Upperhills Tower 1 | 388.1 |
5 | Guotong Building | 201 | Shun Hing Square | 384 |
6 | United Plaza A | 195 | Shenzhen Center | 375.6 |
7 | New Era Plaza | 188.7 | Hanking Center Tower | 350 |
8 | Shenzhen Development Bank | 183.6 | One Shenzhen Bay Tower 7 | 341.4 |
9 | Shenzhen International Science and Technology Building | 182 | Shimao Qianhai Project Tower 1 | 330 |
10 | Electronics Science & Technology Building | 181 | Hon Kwok City Center | 329.4 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Baiyoke Tower II | 304 | Magnolias Waterfront Residences Tower 1 | 315 |
2 | Empire Tower | 226.8 | MahaNakhon | 314.2 |
3 | Jewelry Trade Center | 220.7 | Baiyoke Tower II | 304 |
4 | Sinn Sathorn Tower | 195 | Four Seasons Hotel and Private Residences and Capella Hotel | 299.5 |
5 | Thai Wah Tower II | 194 | Mandarin Oriental Residences Bangkok | 268.7 |
6 | United Center | 187 | The River South Tower | 258 |
7 | Abdulrahim Place | 187 | Canapaya Residences I | 253 |
8 | Tipco Tower | 180 | State Tower | 247.2 |
9 | Kasikorn Bank Head Office | 177 | Waldorf Astoria + Magnolias Ratchaprasong | 242 |
10 | Sathorn House | 174.2 | Eastin Grand Hotel Phayathai Bangkok | 239.7 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | One Canada Square | 236 | The Shard | 306 |
2 | Tower 42 | 182.9 | Twenty-two | 278.2 |
3 | Guy’s Tower | 143 | One Canada Square | 236 |
4 | CityPoint | 127.1 | Landmark Pinnacle | 233.2 |
5 | Euston Tower | 124.3 | Salesforce Tower | 230 |
6 | Cromwell Tower | 123 | The Leadenhall Building | 224 |
7 | Lauderdale Tower | 123 | Newfoundland | 219.8 |
8 | Shakespeare Tower | 123 | Valiant Tower | 214.5 |
9 | Millbank Tower | 118.9 | One Park Drive | 204.9 |
10 | Aviva Tower | 117.9 | 25 Canada Square | 659 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | MV Lomonosov State University | 239 | Federation Tower | 373.7 |
2 | Radisson Royal Hotel | 206 | OKO—Residential Tower | 353.6 |
3 | Kotelnicheskaya Naberezhnaya | 176 | NEVA TOWERS 2 | 345 |
4 | Ministry of Foreign Affairs | 172 | Mercury City Tower | 338.8 |
5 | Kudrinskaya Square | 156 | Stalnaya Vershina | 308.9 |
6 | Gazprom | 151 | Capital City Moscow Tower | 301.8 |
7 | Central Tourist House | 138 | NEVA TOWERS 1 | 297 |
8 | Red Gate Square | 138 | Grand Tower | 283 |
9 | Hilton Moscow Leningradskaya | 136 | Naberezhnaya Tower Block C | 268.4 |
10 | NII Delta Business Center | 132 | Capital Tower 1 | 267 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | One World Trade Center | 417 | One World Trade Center | 541.3 |
2 | Two World Trade Center | 415.1 | Central Park Tower | 472.4 |
3 | Empire State Building | 381 | 111 West 57th Street | 435.3 |
4 | Chrysler Building | 318.9 | 432 Park Avenue | 425.7 |
5 | 70 Pine | 290.2 | 30 Hudson Yards | 386.6 |
6 | The Trump Building | 282.6 | Empire State Building | 381 |
7 | 601 Lexington | 278.9 | Bank of America Tower | 365.8 |
8 | Comcast Building | 259.1 | 3 World Trade Center | 328.9 |
9 | CitySpire | 248.1 | 53 West 53rd | 320 |
10 | 28 Liberty | 247.8 | Chrysler Building | 318.9 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Willis Tower | 442.1 | Willis Tower | 442.1 |
2 | Aon Center | 346.3 | Trump International Hotel & Tower | 423.2 |
3 | 875 North Michigan Avenue | 343.7 | Vista Tower | 362.9 |
4 | The Franklin—North Tower | 306.9 | 875 North Michigan Avenue | 343.7 |
5 | Two Prudential Plaza | 303.3 | The Franklin—North Tower | 306.9 |
6 | 311 South Wacker Drive | 292.9 | Two Prudential Plaza | 303.3 |
7 | 900 North Michigan Avenue | 265 | 311 South Wacker Drive | 292.9 |
8 | Chase Tower | 264.6 | NEMA Chicago | 270.4 |
9 | Water Tower Place | 261.9 | 900 North Michigan Avenue | 265 |
10 | Park Tower | 257.4 | Chase Tower | 264.6 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Southeast Financial Center | 232.8 | Panorama Tower | 252.4 |
2 | Miami Tower | 190.5 | Four Seasons Hotel & Tower | 240.4 |
3 | Santa Maria | 158.5 | Southeast Financial Center | 232.8 |
4 | Stephen P. Clark Center | 155.4 | Brickell Flatiron | 224.3 |
5 | One Biscayne Tower | 150 | Marquis | 214 |
6 | Miami Center | 147.5 | One Thousand Museum | 213.1 |
7 | 701 Brickell Avenue | 137.1 | Paramount Miami World Center | 213.1 |
8 | Two Tequesta Point | 125 | Wells Fargo Tower | 199.5 |
9 | Courthouse Center | 123.4 | 900 Biscayne Bay | 198 |
10 | The Palace | 121.9 | Elysee | 197.8 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Transamerica Pyramid Center | 260 | Salesforce Tower | 326.1 |
2 | 555 California Street | 237.4 | Transamerica Pyramid Center | 260 |
3 | 345 California Center | 211.8 | 181 Fremont | 244.5 |
4 | 101 California Street | 183 | 555 California Street | 237.4 |
5 | 50 Fremont Center | 183 | 345 California Center | 211.8 |
6 | 575 Market Street | 174.7 | Millennium Tower | 196.6 |
7 | Four Embarcadero Center | 173.7 | Park Tower at Transbay | 184.5 |
8 | One Embarcadero Center | 173.4 | One Rincon Hill South Tower | 184.4 |
9 | 44 Montgomery | 172.3 | 101 California Street | 183 |
10 | Spear Tower | 172 | 50 Fremont Center | 183 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 120 Collins Street | 264.9 | Australia 108 | 316.7 |
2 | 101 Collins Street | 260 | Eureka Tower | 297.3 |
3 | Rialto Towers | 251.1 | Aurora Melbourne Central | 269.6 |
4 | Bourke Place | 224 | 120 Collins Street | 264.9 |
5 | Telstra Corporate Building | 218 | 101 Collins Street | 260 |
6 | Melbourne Central | 211 | Prima Pearl Apartments | 254 |
7 | Sofitel Hotel—Collins Place | 188 | Rialto Towers | 251.1 |
8 | ANZ Tower—Collins Place | 188 | Queens Place North Tower | 249.9 |
9 | 80 Collins Street (Old Tower) | 182 | Premier Tower | 248.6 |
10 | 385 Bourke Street | 169 | Victoria One | 246.8 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Chifley Tower | 244 | Crown Sydney Hotel and Resort | 271.3 |
2 | Citigroup Center | 243 | Chifley Tower | 244 |
3 | MLC Center | 228 | Citigroup Centre | 243 |
4 | Governor Phillip Tower | 227 | Deutsche Bank Place | 240 |
5 | Aurora Place | 218.9 | Sydney Greenland Center | 236.5 |
6 | Suncorp Place | 193 | World Tower | 230 |
7 | AMP Center | 188 | MLC Center | 228 |
8 | Century Tower | 183 | Governor Phillip Tower | 227 |
9 | Grosvenor Place | 180 | Ernst & Young Tower at Latitude | 222 |
10 | Castlereagh Center | 173 | Aurora Place | 218.9 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Emirates Tower One | 354.6 | Burj Khalifa | 828 |
2 | Burj Al Arab | 321 | Marina 101 | 425 |
3 | Emirates Tower Two | 309 | Princess Tower | 413.4 |
4 | Al Saqr Business Tower | 158 | 23 Marina | 392.4 |
5 | Saeed Tower I | 150 | Elite Residence | 380.5 |
6 | World Trade Center | 149 | The Address Boulevard | 370 |
7 | Paloma Tower | 146.3 | Almas Tower | 360 |
8 | Deira Tower | 135 | Gevora Hotel | 356.3 |
9 | Ghaya Residence | 131 | JW Marriott Marquis Hotel Dubai Tower 1 | 355.4 |
10 | API World Tower | 130.5 | JW Marriott Marquis Hotel Dubai Tower 2 | 355.4 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Ritz Carlton Hotel | 115 | Aspire Tower | 300 |
2 | N.A. | N.A. | Kempinski Residences and Suites | 253.3 |
3 | N.A. | N.A. | Palm Tower 1 | 244.5 |
4 | N.A. | N.A. | Palm Tower 2 | 244.5 |
5 | N.A. | N.A. | World Trade Center Doha | 241.1 |
6 | N.A. | N.A. | Doha Tower | 238.1 |
7 | N.A. | N.A. | Hilton Double Tree Sinyar Tower | 230 |
8 | N.A. | N.A. | Al Faisal Tower | 227 |
9 | N.A. | N.A. | Al Asmakh Tower | 227 |
10 | N.A. | N.A. | Qatar Petroleum District Tower 7 | 222.8 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Al Faisaliah Center | 266.9 | PIF Tower | 385 |
2 | NCCI Towers North | 100.6 | Burj Rafal | 307.9 |
3 | NCCI Towers South | 100.6 | KAFD World Trade Center | 304 |
4 | N.A. | N.A. | Kingdom Centre | 302.3 |
5 | N.A. | N.A. | Al Faisaliah Center | 266.9 |
6 | N.A. | N.A. | GCC Bank Headquarters | 264 |
7 | N.A. | N.A. | Tamkeen Tower | 258.2 |
8 | N.A. | N.A. | Al Majdoul Tower | 244 |
9 | N.A. | N.A. | Samba Bank HQ Tower | 231.2 |
10 | N.A. | N.A. | Rafal Living Tower | 213 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Azrieli Center Circular Tower | 187 | ToHA Tower 1 | 285 |
2 | Azrieli Center Triangular Tower | 169 | Azrieli Sarona | 238.4 |
3 | Shalom Meir Tower | 142 | Midtown Office Tower | 196 |
4 | Tel Aviv Towers I | 140 | Midtown Residential Tower | 196 |
5 | Tel Aviv Towers II | 140 | Azrieli Center Circular Tower | 187 |
6 | Marganit Tower | 138 | Azrieli Center Triangular Tower | 169 |
7 | Levinstein Tower | 124 | Electra Tower | 169 |
8 | Isrotel Tower | 108 | Alon Tower A | 161.7 |
9 | Dizengoff Tower | 106 | Alon Tower B | 161.7 |
10 | Rubenstein House | 102 | Sitonai Market Tower I & II | 160 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Palácio W. Zarzur | 170 | Palácio W. Zarzur | 170 |
2 | Edificio Italia | 165 | Edificio Italia | 165 |
3 | Altino Arantes | 161 | Altino Arantes | 161 |
4 | Torre Norte | 158 | Torre Norte | 158 |
5 | Birmann 21 | 149 | Begonias | 157.9 |
6 | Banco do Brazil | 143 | Ipes | 157.9 |
7 | Plaza Centenario | 139 | Jabuticabeiras | 157.9 |
8 | Barao de Iguape | 133 | Limantos | 157.9 |
9 | Ipiranga 165 | 130 | Magnolias | 157.9 |
10 | Grande São Paulo | 129 | Reseda | 157.9 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Torre Mirage | 172 | JW Marriott | 284 |
2 | Miramar Towers I | 168 | Torre Vitri | 280.7 |
3 | Miramar Towers II | 168 | Bicsa Financial Center | 267 |
4 | Platinum Tower | 158.5 | The Point | 266 |
5 | PH Plaza Credicorp Bank Panama | 146 | YooPanama Inspired by Starck | 246.8 |
6 | Coastal Tower | 144 | Ocean Two | 245.7 |
7 | HSBC Tower | 135 | Pearl Tower | 242.2 |
8 | N.A. | N.A. | Rivage | 233.2 |
9 | N.A. | N.A. | F&F Tower | 232.7 |
10 | N.A. | N.A. | Torre Waters | 232 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Torre Ejecutiva Pemex | 211.3 | Torre Reforma | 246 |
2 | Torre Altus | 195 | Chapultepec Uno | 241 |
3 | Torre Latinoamerica | 182 | Torre BBVA Bancomer | 234.9 |
4 | World Trade Center | 172.3 | Torre Paradox | 234 |
5 | Arcos Torre I | 161.2 | Torre Mayor | 225 |
6 | Torre Lomas | 146.5 | Torre Ejecutiva Pemex | 211.3 |
7 | Hyatt Regency Mexico City | 136 | Torre Altus | 195 |
8 | Torre Del Caballito | 135 | Torre Reforma Latino | 185 |
9 | Torre Mural | 133 | Torre Latinoamerica | 182 |
10 | Torre Mexicano de Aviacion | 132 | Torres Cuarzo Office Tower | 180 |
# | Building Name | Height (m) | Building Name | Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Times Tower | 140 | The Pinnacle Tower | 320 |
2 | Teleposta Towers | 120 | Pinnacle Tower II | 201 |
3 | Kenyatta International Conference Center | 105.2 | Britam Tower | 200.1 |
4 | Social Security House | 102.7 | UAP Old Mutual Tower | 163 |
5 | N.A. | N.A. | Times Tower | 140 |
6 | N.A. | N.A. | Parliament Tower | 125 |
7 | N.A. | N.A. | Teleposta Towers | 120 |
8 | N.A. | N.A. | Kenya Commercial Bank Plaza | 109.1 |
9 | N.A. | N.A. | Kenyatta International Conference Center | 105.2 |
10 | N.A. | N.A. | Social Security House | 102.7 |
# | City | Number of Skyscrapers in 2000 | Number of Skyscrapers Built between 2000 and 2020 | Number of Skyscrapers in 2020 | Percentage of Increase |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Dubai | 25 | 322 | 347 | 1288 |
2 | New York City | 590 | 305 | 895 | 52 |
3 | Shenzhen | 20 | 173 | 193 | 865 |
4 | Shanghai | 69 | 157 | 226 | 228 |
5 | Moscow | 31 | 151 | 182 | 487 |
6 | Chicago | 207 | 127 | 334 | 61 |
7 | Melbourne | 36 | 116 | 152 | 322 |
8 | Bangkok | 27 | 96 | 123 | 356 |
9 | Miami | 27 | 92 | 119 | 341 |
10 | London | 23 | 80 | 103 | 348 |
11 | São Paulo | 17 | 70 | 87 | 412 |
12 | Panama City | 7 | 63 | 70 | 900 |
13 | Sydney | 83 | 61 | 144 | 74 |
14 | Beijing | 10 | 60 | 70 | 600 |
15 | Mexico City | 27 | 53 | 80 | 196 |
16 | Doha | 1 | 48 | 49 | 4800 |
17 | Riyadh | 3 | 43 | 46 | 1433 |
18 | Tel Aviv | 11 | 42 | 53 | 382 |
19 | San Francisco | 67 | 29 | 96 | 43 |
20 | Nairobi | 4 | 6 | 10 | 150 |
# | City | 2000 Average (m) | 2020 Average (m) | Height Increase (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Dubai | 198 | 424 | 213 |
2 | Doha | 115 | 243 | 211 |
3 | Beijing | 147 | 291 | 200 |
4 | London | 142 | 281 | 198 |
5 | Moscow | 164 | 314 | 191 |
6 | Riyadh | 156 | 278 | 178 |
7 | Shenzhen | 231 | 393 | 170 |
8 | Panama City | 156 | 253 | 162 |
9 | Shanghai | 235 | 365 | 160 |
10 | Nairobi | 117 | 159 | 159 |
11 | Miami | 154 | 219 | 142 |
12 | Tel Aviv | 136 | 192 | 142 |
13 | Bangkok | 205 | 274 | 134 |
14 | Mexico City | 160 | 213 | 133 |
15 | New York | 314 | 398 | 127 |
16 | Melbourne | 216 | 266 | 123 |
17 | San Francisco | 194 | 221 | 114 |
18 | Sydney | 208 | 236 | 114 |
19 | São Paulo | 148 | 160 | 108 |
20 | Chicago | 308 | 326 | 106 |
Function | 100 m+ Skyscrapers | 200 m+ Skyscrapers | 300 m+ Skyscrapers | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year | 2000 | 2020 | 2000 | 2020 | 2000 | 2020 |
Office | 71% | 32% | 82% | 40% | 75% | 32% |
Residential | 13% | 44% | 3% | 28% | 0% | 13% |
Mixed use | 9% | 19% | 12% | 27% | 12% | 50% |
Hotel | 4% | 4% | 3% | 3% | 13% | 5% |
Others | 3% | 1% | 0% | 1% | 0% | 0% |
# | City | 2000 | 2020 |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Shanghai | Polycentric | Super Polycentric |
2 | Beijing | Fragmented | Monocentric |
3 | Shenzhen | Fragmented | Super Polycentric |
4 | Bangkok | Fragmented | Monocentric |
5 | London | Fragmented | Polycentric |
6 | Moscow | Polycentric | Super Polycentric |
7 | New York | Polycentric | Super Polycentric |
8 | Chicago | Monocentric | Super Monocentric |
9 | Miami | Monocentric | Super Monocentric |
10 | San Francisco | Monocentric | Super Monocentric |
11 | Melbourne | Fragmented | Super Monocentric |
12 | Sydney | Monocentric | Super Monocentric |
13 | Dubai | Fragmented | Super Polycentric |
14 | Doha | Fragmented | Super Monocentric |
15 | Riyadh | Fragmented | Semi Polycentric |
16 | Tel Aviv | Fragmented | Semi Monocentric |
17 | São Paulo | Fragmented | Semi Polycentric |
18 | Panama City | Fragmented | Semi Polycentric |
19 | Mexico City | Fragmented | Semi Polycentric |
20 | Nairobi | Fragmented | Semi Monocentric |
© 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Al-Kodmany, K. Skyscrapers in the Twenty-First Century City: A Global Snapshot. Buildings 2018, 8, 175. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8120175
Al-Kodmany K. Skyscrapers in the Twenty-First Century City: A Global Snapshot. Buildings. 2018; 8(12):175. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8120175
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Kodmany, Kheir. 2018. "Skyscrapers in the Twenty-First Century City: A Global Snapshot" Buildings 8, no. 12: 175. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8120175