Carbonated Aggregates and Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymers: Advancing Sustainable Concrete for Structural Use
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Material Properties
2.1.1. Carbonated Aggregates
2.1.2. Basalt FRP
2.2. Concrete Mix Design
2.3. Pull-Out Tests
2.4. Slab Tests
2.5. Instrumentation and Testing Procedure
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. UPV and Absorption Capacity
3.2. Mechanical Properties of Concrete
3.3. Pull-Out Tests Results
3.4. Slab Tests Results
3.4.1. Load–Deflection Response
3.4.2. Ultimate Load Capacity
3.4.3. Cracking Behaviour
3.5. Carbon FootPrint Analysis
3.5.1. System Boundary
3.5.2. Inventory Analysis
3.5.3. Impact Analysis
4. Conclusions
- Replacing natural sand (NS) with the CA affected the homogeneity and internal integrity of the concrete mix. This was evidenced by the 4.5% and 13.3% reduction in ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) for concrete samples containing 50% CA and 100% CA since the CA is lighter and slightly more porous than the NA.
- Compressive strength increased by 3% at 25% CA and 1% at 50% CA. As CA replacement levels increased, the splitting tensile strength was 14%, 18%, and 38%, and the flexural strength was 19%, 33%, and 52% lower than that for the control mix at 25%, 50%, and 100% replacement, respectively.
- The stiffness of the steel-reinforced slabs (S-NA-Steel) was much higher than that of the BFRP-reinforced slabs due to the much lower elastic module of BFRP. The deflection at the ultimate load for the slab BFRP slab was four times lower than that for the steel RC slab.
- The inclusion of the CA in concrete had a slight effect on the overall performance of the slabs reinforced with the BFRP. All BFRP one-spanning slabs exhibited linear behavior until the ultimate load capacity with the sudden failure of the slabs. However, the ultimate load capacity was notably influenced.
- Both BFRP and steel reinforcement exhibit similar ultimate bond capacities, with a slight decrease in BFRP’s capacity with concrete mix with 25% CA compared control mix, suggesting a compromised bond behavior, especially with higher CA content.
- The incorporation of BFRP and CA can have an impact on the carbon savings of concrete slabs, which incorporate them. For example, using 50% CA in concrete reinforced with Basalt FRP reduced the embodied carbon of the slab by 9.7%, in comparison with the steel RC slab.
- Further studies are needed to investigate the effect of CA inclusion on the compressive stress–strain behaviour, ultimate strain, workability, and the elastic modulus of concrete. Additionally, the strength development of concrete containing CA at different ages (7, 14, and 56 days) requires further investigation.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Natural Coarse Aggregates | Natural Sand | CA | |
---|---|---|---|
Saturated surface dry density SSD (kg/m3) | 2413 | 2416 | 1980 |
Specific gravity | 2.4 | 2.4 | 1.98 |
Water absorption rate % | 1.7 | 4.44 | 16.4 |
Mix | Cement (kg/m3) | Natural Sand (kg/m3) | NCA (kg/m3) | CA (kg/m3) | Free Water (kg/m3) | Additional Water for CA SSD (kg/m3) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | 463 | 700 | 927 | 0 | 250 | 0 |
25 CA | 463 | 525 | 927 | 144 | 250 | 5 |
50 CA | 463 | 350 | 927 | 289 | 250 | 10 |
100 CA | 463 | 0 | 927 | 578 | 250 | 20 |
Specimen | Mean Measured Compressive Strength, fc (MPa) | Failure Mode | (MPa) | Slip at Ultimate Bond Strength (mm) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean Value | Standard Deviation | Mean Value | Standard Deviation | |||
Steel-0 CA | 30.3 | Pull-out | 10.3 | 0.44 | 1.01 | 0.05 |
BFRP-0 CA | 30.3 | Pull-out | 10.7 | 0.47 | 2.94 | 0.59 |
BFRP-25 CA | 31.1 | Pull-out | 9.44 | 0.99 | 3.51 | 0.74 |
Slab | fc (Mpa) | Pcr (kN) | Pu (kN) |
---|---|---|---|
S-NS-B | 36.3 (0.7) | 23 | 80 |
S-25CA-B | 31.6 (0.41) | 17 | 64.4 |
S-50CA-B | 34.0 (0.62) | 15 | 58.5 |
S-NS-Steel | 36.7 (0.52) | 25 | 83.3 |
Material | 10 mm BFRP Rebar | 10 mm Steel Rebar | Carbonated Aggregates | Natural Sand | Coarse Aggregate | Water | Cement |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A1–A3 | 2.6 | 1.2 | −0.0918 | 0.0048 | 0.005 | 0.001 | 0.73 |
Ref. | EPD * | [73] | EPD | [74] | [74] | [74] | [74] |
Slab | Material | Quantity (kg) | A1–A3 | Contribution to Emission (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Steel-reinforced OPC slab | 10 mm steel bars | 3.14 | 3.70 | 4.2 |
Cement | 115.75 | 84.5 | 93.5 | |
Sand | 175 | 0.84 | 0.9 | |
Aggregate | 231.75 | 1.16 | 1.3 | |
Water | 62.5 | 0.063 | 0.06 | |
Total | 858 | 90.3 | ||
BFRP-reinforced OPC slab | 10 mm BFRP bars | 0.785 | 2.00 | 2.3 |
Cement | 115.75 | 84.50 | 95.4 | |
Sand | 175 | 0.84 | 0.9 | |
Aggregate | 231.75 | 1.16 | 1.3 | |
Water | 62.5 | 0.06 | 0.1 | |
Total | 858 | 88.6 | ||
BFRP-reinforced OPC slab with 25% CA | 10 mm BFRP bars | 0.785 | 2.04 | 2.4 |
Cement | 115.75 | 84.50 | 99.3 | |
Sand | 131.25 | 0.63 | 0.7 | |
Aggregate | 231.75 | 1.16 | 1.4 | |
Water | 62.5 | 0.06 | 0.1 | |
CA | 36 | −3.30 | −3.9 | |
Total | 577.25 | 85.1 | ||
BFRP-reinforced OPC slab with 50% CA | 10 mm BFRP bars | 0.785 | 2.04 | 2.5 |
Cement | 115.75 | 84.50 | 103.6 | |
Sand | 87.5 | 0.42 | 0.5 | |
Aggregate | 231.75 | 1.16 | 1.4 | |
Water | 62.5 | 0.06 | 0.1 | |
CA | 72.25 | −6.63 | −8.1 | |
Total | 569.8 | 81.5 |
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Shamass, R.; Limbachiya, V.; Ajibade, O.; Rabi, M.; Lopez, H.U.L.; Zhou, X. Carbonated Aggregates and Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymers: Advancing Sustainable Concrete for Structural Use. Buildings 2025, 15, 775. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15050775
Shamass R, Limbachiya V, Ajibade O, Rabi M, Lopez HUL, Zhou X. Carbonated Aggregates and Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymers: Advancing Sustainable Concrete for Structural Use. Buildings. 2025; 15(5):775. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15050775
Chicago/Turabian StyleShamass, Rabee, Vireen Limbachiya, Oluwatoyin Ajibade, Musab Rabi, Hector Ulises Levatti Lopez, and Xiangming Zhou. 2025. "Carbonated Aggregates and Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymers: Advancing Sustainable Concrete for Structural Use" Buildings 15, no. 5: 775. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15050775
APA StyleShamass, R., Limbachiya, V., Ajibade, O., Rabi, M., Lopez, H. U. L., & Zhou, X. (2025). Carbonated Aggregates and Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymers: Advancing Sustainable Concrete for Structural Use. Buildings, 15(5), 775. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15050775