Next Article in Journal
Propolis as a Key Source of p-Coumaric Acid Permeating Honey and Sucrose Syrup Stores of Honey Bees
Previous Article in Journal
Acaricidal Activity and Potential Application of Atropa belladonna
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Insects
Volume 16
Issue 11
10.3390/insects16111160
insects-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effects of Prey and Pollen Diets on the Reproduction and Longevity of Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), a Key Thrips Predator

by
Lovely Adhikary
*,
Hugh Adam Smith
and
Sriyanka Lahiri
Department of Entomology and Nematology, Gulf Coast Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Wimauma, FL 33598, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Insects 2025, 16(11), 1160; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16111160
Submission received: 24 September 2025 / Revised: 7 November 2025 / Accepted: 11 November 2025 / Published: 13 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)
Versions Notes

Simple Summary

Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) is an important predator for thrips and other soft-bodied arthropods and is broadly used in biological control programs. Diet quality strongly influences the reproduction, longevity and overall performance of these predators both in mass rearing facilities and after augmentative release in the field. In this study, we evaluated the effects of different prey and pollen diets on the longevity and fecundity of O. insidiosus. The diets tested in the study were Ephestia kuehniella eggs, Scirtothrips dorsalis larvae, Typha latifolia and multifloral bee pollen and honey. Our results showed that E. kuehniella eggs supported the highest longevity and reproductive ability in adult O. insidiosus, making it the most suitable diet for efficient colony production. S. dorsalis also reinforced reproduction and demonstrated the potential of O. insidiosus as a biological control agent against this invasive thrips species. Although the pollen diets were less effective than insect-sourced diets, they enabled predators to complete their lifecycle. The findings of this study provide insights into improving both laboratory rearing and field performance of O. insidiosus in integrated pest management programs.

Abstract

Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) is an important biological control agent for various soft-bodied arthropod pests. The effective mass rearing and reliable field performance of any biocontrol agent can depend on the quality of its diet. While a combination of insect prey and pollen has been tested previously, little information exists on how different prey and pollen types support survival and reproduction when provided alone. The current study evaluated adult longevity, reproductive span, and total and daily fecundity per female across five different diets. The first instar nymphs of O. insidiosus were reared on Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) eggs + honey, pest thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) + honey, Typha latifolia L. (Poales: Typhaceae) pollen + honey, multifloral bee pollen + honey, and honey alone in laboratory conditions. The adults reared on E. kuehniella eggs + honey had the highest longevity, daily and total fecundity, and reproductive span, followed by those fed on S. dorsalis + honey. Two pollen diets supported reproduction and survival but were significantly less effective than insect-based diets; honey alone was insufficient to sustain reproduction. These results confirm the superior nutritional quality of E. kuehniella eggs for mass rearing while also showing that O. insidiosus can complete its lifecycle on pollen diets. Incorporating high-quality prey in the rearing system will improve colony productivity, whereas pollen supplements in the field may support predator persistence during periods of low pest density. This study contributes to optimizing both laboratory production and augmentation biological control programs using O. insidiosus.

1. Introduction

Biological control agents are typically mass-produced in rearing facilities to ensure their ready availability in the field. Artificially supplied diets used in these facilities reduce rearing costs and may increase their potential as biological control agents [1]. Many predatory hemipterans are omnivores, able to feed on plants and other insect prey [2]. Omnivory in predatory insects may enhance development and survival by enabling them to acquire essential nutrients when animal prey is deficient [3].
In this context, Orius spp. (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) are commercially important predators used in biological control programs, particularly for managing thrips in both open-field and greenhouse crop production [4,5]. In addition to thrips, they can also feed on other soft-bodied insects, including aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) [6] and whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) [7]. Orius spp. are considered non-obligatory phytophagous insects as they can feed on plants [8], especially on xylem and mesophyll tissue, and consume water, sugar, and small amounts of amino acids [9]. They can also feed on pollen [10]. Orius spp. have been used in many biological control studies [11,12,13]. Their ability to survive on various diets may increase their reliability as biological control agents.
A previous study evaluated the fertility of Orius majusculus on two plant species, sweet alyssum (Lobularia maritima L.) (Brassicaceae) and green bean Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae), with and without the supplement of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) eggs [14]. The authors [14] found that the O. majusculus exhibited higher fertility when the Ephestia kuehniella eggs were provided in addition to the host plants. Another study examined the fecundity and longevity of Orius insidiosus when fed on Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and multifloral pollen, including Bidens pilosa L. (Asteraceae), Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae), Citrus spp. (Rutaceae), Angycus spp., and Anagasta kuehniella eggs as a diet, and found that the combination of pollen with insect prey resulted in the lowest pre-oviposition period in adults [15]. The life history parameters of Orius laevigatus (Fieber) and Orius albidipennis (Reuter) were studied under three dietary conditions: E. kuehniella eggs, multifloral pollen, and a combination of E. kuehniella and pollen [16]. O. laevigatus produced more eggs than O. albidipennis; however, when E. kuehniella eggs were provided with pollen, an increase in egg production was observed in O. albidipennis [16]. Therefore, the availability of plant nutritional sources, such as pollen, in addition to the insect diet, seems to enhance the biological parameters of Orius spp.
In other hemipteran predators, such as Geocoris punctipes (Say) (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae), a combined diet of lepidopteran eggs supplemented with a plant diet resulted in a shorter developmental time, increased nymphal survival rate, and higher body weight in newly emerged adults [17]. For the predatory stink bug, Podisus maculiventris (Say) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), supplementing the prey, Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), with plant material increased the survival rate and reduced developmental time and the pre-ovipositional period [18].
Previous studies [15,16] have evaluated multifloral pollen as an alternate food source for O. insidiosus. However, very few studies [19] have used Typha latifolia L. (Typhaceae: Poales) pollen as a supplemental diet for rearing this species. Typha pollen is considered a nutritious alternative food for predators. For example, Typha pollen as supplemental food reduced the cannibalism among the predatory mite Amblyseius herbicolus Chant (Mesostigmata: Phytoseiidae) [20].
Another insect diet used in this study, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is an invasive insect and had become a significant pest of many crops, including strawberries, Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne (Rosaceae), blueberries, Vaccinium caesariense (Ericaceae) [21], peppers, Capsicum sp. (Solanaceae) [22], and ornamentals [23] in the USA, after its establishment in 2005 [24]. Scirtothrips dorsalis is expanding its range to other southern and southeastern states of the USA [25]. The leading control option for this pest is insecticide application, which can lead to the development of insecticide resistance [26]. The biological control of S. dorsalis is heavily dependent on the release of predatory mites [27]. Since Orius spp. are well-known predators of thrips, O. insidiosus may have potential as a biological control agent for S. dorsalis. The inclusion of S. dorsalis as one of the diets in this study will further advance our understanding of whether O. insidiosus will successfully develop and reproduce by feeding on S. dorsalis and become a successful augmentation biological control agent for this pest.
As mentioned before, O. insidiosus is capable of feeding on different plant diets and may survive the prey scarcity period. Many studies have mentioned that Orius spp. feeding on pollen in the field [10,28] is an adaptive strategy [29] for biocontrol agents to maintain their population when prey density is low [16].
Mass rearing of predatory insects involves various advantages and disadvantages, including a nutritional regime that may increase body size but prolong the developmental time. Scientists must determine which is the most essential characteristic of a biocontrol agent for achieving successful control of the target pests. Additionally, the commercial rearing facilities must consider the cost of rearing these agents and regulate the nutritional sources to produce biological control agents that are economically sound and physically competitive [30], because an inferior diet can reduce nymphal survival and adult reproduction in predatory species [31].
By linking laboratory diet studies to mass rearing efficiency and field persistence, we aimed to provide practical insights to improve the use of O. insidiosus in thrips IPM programs. This study aims to evaluate the adult longevity and reproductive ability of Orius insidiosus females reared on two pollen diets, cattail pollen, Typha latifolia L. (Typhaceae), and multifloral bee pollen, and two insect diets, the eggs of the Mediterranean flour moth, E. kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis, with honey solution as a control. The null hypothesis of this experiment was that there would be no difference in adult longevity and reproductive ability of females reared on different diets. The alternative hypothesis was that the insect-based diets would result in increased longevity and reproductive ability than pollen and honey diets in adult O. insidiosus females.

2. Materials and Methods

All experiments were conducted at the Strawberry and Small Fruit Entomology lab at the University of Florida, Gulf Coast Research and Education Center (GCREC), Balm, FL (27.712490°, −82.302322°), at 25 ± 5 °C and 65 ± 5% RH, with a 16:8 L:D photoperiod. The diet treatments tested were as follows: (1) Ephestia kuehniella eggs and honey solution, (2) Scirtothrips dorsalis second instar larvae and honey solution, (3) cattail pollen Typha latifolia L. and honey solution, (4) multifloral bee pollen and honey solution, and (5) honey solution (control).
The E. kuehniella eggs were purchased from a commercial source (Beneficial Insectary, Redding, CA, USA). The S. dorsalis used in the experiment were from a colony maintained by the Strawberry and Small Fruit Entomology lab at GCREC on potted cotton plants, Gossypium hirsutum L. (Malvaceae) (MRC 270 Organic Cotton seeds; Brenham, TX, USA), with 5–6 leaves. The S. dorsalis colony was initially established in 2019 and was sourced from a naturally occurring field population in strawberry crops at the GCREC site. It was maintained in environmentally controlled growth rooms at 25 ± 5 °C and 60 ± 5% RH, with a 16:8 L:D photoperiod inside insect cages. The T. latifolia pollen and organic bee pollen were also purchased from commercial sources (Plum Dragon Herbs, Inc., Chester, MD, USA; Greenbow®, Cypress, CA, USA, respectively). Since the bee pollen used in this experiment was multifloral, information about the exact plant species in the pollen was not available. The honey used in the experiment was clover, Trifolium repens L. (Fabaceae) honey (Burleson Honey, Waxahachie, TX, USA), which was diluted to a 30% honey solution by mixing with de-ionized water.
The predator O. insidiosus was also acquired from a commercial source (BioBee Ltd., Sde Eliyahu, Israel). The adults of O. insidiosus were kept in lidded plastic containers (19.3 cm length × 28.26 cm width × 8.89 cm height) lined with tissue paper with a 5.08 cm × 5.08 cm vent on the lid. Organic sweet snap pea pods Pisum sativum L. (Fabaceae) were purchased, washed with tap water, air-dried, and then provided as an oviposition substrate. After 24 h, the pea pods with eggs were removed and placed into new, lidded containers. Wrinkled tissue paper was then placed inside the container to provide a hiding place and reduce the chance of cannibalism among the hatched nymphs. The eggs were evaluated every 24 h.

2.1. Rearing of O. insidiosus Nymphs

The 0 to 1-day-old O. insidiosus nymphs were removed from the containers using a fine brush and assigned to new containers with one of five different diets, as mentioned above (100 nymphs per diet type). Soup cups (12.7 cm in diameter) with screened lids, designed to facilitate ventilation, were used as the maturation cages.
At first, the tissue papers were placed at the bottom of the cups. Then the 0 to 1-day-old nymphs were transferred one by one into these cups on tissue paper with a fine brush. A small amount (0.15 g) of E. kuehniella eggs was provided as diet during initial instars. After the third instar, the amount of Ephestia eggs increased to 0.5 g. The quantity of Ephestia eggs was determined according to the rearing recommendations of Bueno et al. (2006) [32]. As the author suggested that O. insidiosus has a larger body size than other Orius spp. and that closed rearing conditions may increase the risk of cannibalism [32], prey amounts were increased to ensure that Ephestia eggs were not a limiting factor for the nymphs.
On the other hand, 1 g of cattail and bee pollen was sprinkled with the help of a thick brush inside the cup for even distribution of the food. Approximately 150–160 S. dorsalis second instar larvae were aspirated into a micro-pipette. The pipette was left open inside the cup to allow the prey to be released into the cup. The honey solution was given through a soaked cotton placed inside a piece of plastic drinking straw (1.5 cm in length). This was done to avoid soiling the floor of the maturation cage and to eliminate the chance of drowning of the nymphs. All the diet and the honey solution were changed every day to avoid mold development.

2.2. Experiment with Various Diets Using Adult O. insidiosus

After the nymphs matured into adults from each diet, a 24 h old pair (one male and one female) was placed in a smaller plastic cup with a 5.08 cm diameter. Males paired with each female remained in the rearing arena until death. Although a single mating event can be sufficient for oviposition in O. insidiosus, adult females can mate multiple times during their lifetime [33,34].
They were given the same diet on which they had been maintained since their first instar stage. Sweet snap pea pods were provided as oviposition substrate in these experimental cages. The oviposition substrate and the diet were changed every day, and the eggs laid on the pea pod were counted under the microscope (Stemi 508, Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) at 40× magnification. Data collection included the oviposition per day per female (daily fecundity), the total number of eggs laid by a female, adult longevity, and length of reproductive period.
The experiment was repeated twice, referred to as trials 1 and 2. Trials 1 and 2 were performed at two different points in time and with new sets of insects, and followed the exact same experimental design. In trial 1, ten pairs of O. insidiosus were tested for each diet option, except for the honey (control) option, where four pairs were tested. In trial 2, ten pairs for E. kuehniella eggs + honey, S. dorsalis + honey, and cattail pollen + honey diets were tested, whereas in the case of bee pollen + honey, nine pairs were tested. Also, in trial 2, for the honey (control) option, five adult pairs were tested.

2.3. Data Analysis

Data was analyzed using the SAS OnDemand for Academics web platform (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). The diet treatments were considered as fixed effects, and the individual insects were modeled as a random effect in this experiment. The normality of the residuals was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk test (Proc Univariate). We used a completely randomized design, with four to ten replications per treatment as described above. The effects of different diets on the longevity and reproductive ability of adult O. insidiosus females were analyzed using a generalized linear mixed model (Proc GLIMMIX). The mean separation was performed using Tukey’s HSD at α = 0.05.

3. Results

Different diets significantly influenced total egg production in female O. insidiosus adults in both trials (F = 225.10; df = 4, 39; p < 0.0001, and F = 188.73; df = 4, 31.03; p < 0.0001, respectively). The superior quality of the E. kuehniella eggs + honey confirms the highest number of total eggs among all the treatments, followed by females fed on S. dorsalis + honey. The number of eggs produced by individuals reared on cattail pollen and honey, as well as multifloral bee pollen and honey, did not differ significantly from each other. The total eggs produced in the honey-only treatment were the lowest (Table 1).
A similar trend was observed in the daily oviposition experiments in both trials (F = 132.14; df = 4, 39; p < 0.0001 and F = 74.36; df = 4, 31.14; p < 0.0001, respectively). Oviposition per day per female was highest in the adults reared on E. kuehniella eggs + honey, followed by adults reared on S. dorsalis + honey diets. The number of eggs produced per female per day did not differ significantly between the two pollen + honey diets (Table 2).
The longevity of adults also differed significantly among different diets in both trials (F = 121.02; df = 4, 39; p < 0.0001, and F = 116.76; df = 4, 31.46; p < 0.0001). E. kuehniella eggs + honey were found to be the finest diet to support longevity in adult O. insidiosus. Individuals fed the S. dorsalis + honey diet lived longer than those fed the two other pollen + honey diets and the honey-only diet (Table 3).
Both insect + honey diets resulted in similar length of reproductive periods (F = 80.37; df = 4, 39; p < 0.0001 and F = 102.33; df = 4, 39; p < 0.0001) in O. insidiosus adults. The reproductive period of female O. insidiosus fed on the pollen + honey diets was significantly lower than the insect + honey diets. However, both pollen diets supported the same reproductive length in both trials (Table 4). The honey-only diet resulted in the shortest reproductive period.

4. Discussion

In the current study, diet significantly affected the longevity and reproductive ability of O. insidiosus. Ephestia kuehniella eggs + honey solution was the most effective diet for daily and total fecundity, longevity, and reproductive period in adult O. insidiosus, followed by S. dorsalis + honey. On the other hand, the pollen diets, cattail pollen and bee pollen, did not differ from each other and supported the same level of reproduction and longevity, but were less effective than the insect diets. The individuals fed on honey only performed poorly, pointing to the fact that a carbohydrate-rich diet alone cannot boost the lifecycle parameters of O. insidiosus.
The possible reason for this observation is that the lepidopteran eggs are richer in nutritional quality compared to other insect diets [35,36]. These eggs are also less challenging to handle than highly mobile, cryptic prey such as S. dorsalis. Orius spp. has demonstrated that high-quality protein-rich insect diets, particularly E. kuehniella eggs, better support oviposition, longer lifespan, longer reproductive time, and shorter developmental period compared with pollen or other factitious diets [15,29]. Supplemental pollen can sometimes enhance reproductive success, but the effects vary among species and dietary combinations [15,16,29,37]. Our results align with the findings of Tommasini et al. (2004) [38], where the oviposition and longevity of the adult Orius spp. were superior when the E. kuehniella eggs were provided compared to F. occidentalis.
The total egg production and eggs per day per female were significantly lower in pollen diets than in the insect diets in our study. The lower protein content of the pollen diet can hamper egg maturation in females [8]. Between the two pollen diets tested in our study, T. latifolia contains 17 percent protein [39]. Bee pollen contains 21.3 percent protein [40]. However, egg production, longevity, and reproductive duration did not differ between these two pollen diets in our study.
Although the biochemical quantification of macronutrients in the diet was beyond the scope of this study, the nutritional composition is important for reproduction and longevity in insects. Ephestia kuehniella eggs are known to be rich in protein and contain balanced proportions of essential amino acids and lipids that support reproduction and longevity in predatory insects [41,42]. In contrast, pollen diets such as cattail and multifloral bee pollen generally contain lower crude protein levels and higher carbohydrate fractions [39,40]. These nutritional differences likely explain the superior fecundity and longevity observed when O. insidiosus females were fed insect-based diets compared to pollen. Our findings suggest that protein-rich diets provide the amino acids and lipids required for egg production and extended adult longevity in O. insidiosus. As nymphal survival was not evaluated in this study, we cannot conclude that these plant-based diets are effective throughout the lifecycle of these predators or suitable for mass rearing facilities. Instead, our results suggest that pollen and honey may function as supplemental resources rather than primary developmental diets. In a natural environment where prey density fluctuates, the availability of floral resources may help maintain predator populations until prey becomes abundant again.
Apart from diet, longevity can also influence insect oviposition [43]. The longevity of the O. insidiosus females ranged from 50.9 days when fed on Ephestia eggs to 40.5 days when fed on pollen [16]. In another study with O. laevigatus, the longevity was 50.2 days for adults feeding on Ephestia eggs when reared at 23 °C and 70 ± 5% RH [44]. In our study, adult longevity was significantly lower than that reported in previous studies, ranging from 29.6 to 31.4 days across two trials. This difference could be attributed to variations in ambient temperature during rearing [45]. The authors reported lower longevity of 24.83 to 26.44 days when reared in 27 ± 1 °C and 60 ± 10% RH [45].
In the current study, the total number of eggs laid by females reared on Ephestia and honey was 141.3 and 123.5 in Trial 1 and Trial 2, respectively. (Table 1). Another study reported much higher fecundity in O. insidiosus females (190.3 eggs per female) when Ephestia eggs were offered as food [15]. In studies with Orius laevigatus, the total fecundity fluctuated from 109.8 to 150.4 when reared on Ephestia eggs [16,44]. These differences may be due to variations in ambient temperatures and different oviposition substrates used in the experiments. In the current study, sweet snap peas were used, whereas Calixto et al. (2013) [15] used stems of Bidens pilosa L. (Asterales: Asteraceae) as an oviposition substrate. Different oviposition substrates can also lead to differences in the number of eggs laid by females [46]. Larval diet can also influence insect reproductive ability [47]. However, others argue that the adult diet has more effect on reproduction than the nymphal diet [44]. In this study, insects were fed the same diet throughout their lives.
A previous study showed that O. insidiosus nymphs fed exclusively on bee pollen had lower survival than those fed a diet supplemented with E. kuehniella eggs [48]. In our study, we examined the effects of different diets combined with a honey solution. Bee pollen resulted in significantly lower longevity and reproductive ability compared to E. kuehniella and S. dorsalis. Orius insidiosus was barely able to produce eggs when reared on a honey solution alone, and the longevity and reproductive ability of the adults were severely reduced. In our study, only 4–5 pairs of newly emerged adults developed from the honey solution diet, even though 100 nymphs (freshly hatched) were initially used to obtain adults, similar to the case with the other diet options. There was also a high level of cannibalism among the nymphs and adults, who were provided with only the honey solution. The individuals with pollen and honey had also experienced cannibalism, but at a lower level, possibly because pollen serves as an alternative food with some protein availability, which reduces the chance of cannibalism [49]. A dietary source with poor nutritional quality (honey) can lead to higher cannibalism in predators [50]. The carbohydrate in the honey diet can be a source of energy [51] and acts as a feeding stimulant for insects [52]. However, the honey diet was insufficient as a protein-rich diet, which is crucial for the growth and reproduction of predatory insects. A nutrient-rich diet can significantly increase body weight [53] and egg production [30].
Diet studies are fundamental for the successful mass rearing of biocontrol agents used in augmentation biocontrol. The fitness of natural enemies is directly related to the quality of food they were provided with during rearing, which determines the survival, reproductive ability, and overall performance after release.
This study provides the first experimental evidence that Scirtothrips dorsalis can serve as suitable prey for O. insidiosus, confirming its potential role as a biological control agent against this invasive pest. Previous work with O. insidiosus primarily focused on Frankliniella spp. [4,54], among the pest thrips. Our results show that O. insidiosus completed its lifecycle and successfully reproduced when fed on S. dorsalis. This information suggests that S. dorsalis is acceptable and adequate prey for O. insidiosus.

5. Conclusions

Among the diets tested, E. kuehniella eggs supported the highest fecundity, longevity, and reproductive span, underscoring their value for mass rearing facilities. These findings can improve the efficiency of the mass rearing programs. Although the production costs associated with E. kuehniella eggs are relatively high, their superior nutritional quality ensures greater colony productivity and availability of robust predators for augmentation releases. The inclusion of S. dorsalis as prey in the study revealed that O. insidiosus can successfully develop and reproduce on this invasive pest, supporting its potential role in the integrated management of thrips in strawberries and other essential crops. Given that S. dorsalis is becoming resistant to commercial broad-spectrum insecticides, the use of O. insidiosus could provide a sustainable alternative to chemical applications within IPM programs.
Although pollen diets were less effective than insect prey, O. insidiosus completed its lifecycle on both Typha and multifloral bee pollen. The results suggest that pollen availability in crop landscapes, whether through banker plants or supplemental pollen application, can sustain predator populations during periods of low prey density. By enhancing persistence and establishment, pollen supplementation may improve the effectiveness of O. insidiosus following release.
From an applied perspective, these findings contribute to both laboratory and field applications of O. insidiosus. Optimizing rearing diets with E. kuehniella eggs, reliable production of high-quality predators while provisioning pollen in crop environments can maintain populations between pest outbreaks. Together, these strategies strengthen the integration of O. insidiosus into IPM programs.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.A., H.A.S. and S.L.; methodology, L.A.; software, L.A.; validation, L.A. and S.L.; formal analysis, L.A.; investigation, L.A.; resources, L.A. and S.L.; data curation, L.A.; writing—original draft preparation, L.A.; writing—review and editing, L.A., S.L. and H.A.S.; visualization, L.A. and S.L.; supervision, L.A. and S.L.; project administration, S.L.; funding acquisition, S.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the United States Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture Hatch Project No. FLA-GCR-005888 and FLA-GCR-006545.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the assistance of Diem Nguyen and Chastity Perry from the Strawberry and Small Fruit Entomology Lab at UF/IFAS GCREC during the experiment.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Cohen, A.C.; Smith, L.K. A new concept in artificial diets for Chrysoperla rufilabris: The efficacy of solid diets. Biol. Control 1998, 13, 49–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Torres, J.B.; Boyd, D.W. Zoophytophagy in predatory hemiptera. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 2009, 52, 1199–1208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Dumont, F.; Aubry, O.; Lucas, E. From evolutionary aspects of zoophytophagy to biological control. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2018, 6, 221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Funderburk, J.; Stavisky, J.; Olson, S. Predation of Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in field peppers by Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Environ. Entomol. 2000, 29, 376–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Bosco, L.; Giacometto, E.; Tavella, L. Colonization and predation of thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) by Orius spp. (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) in sweet pepper greenhouses in Northwest Italy. Biol. Control 2008, 44, 331–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Alvarado, P.; Baltà, O.; Alomar, O. Efficiency of four heteroptera as predators of Aphis gossypii and Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Hom.: Aphididae). BioControl 1997, 42, 215–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Arnó, J.; Roig, J.; Riudavets, J. Evaluation of Orius majusculus and O. laevigatus as predators of Bemisia tabaci and estimation of their prey preference. Biol. Control 2008, 44, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Coll, M. Feeding and ovipositing on plants by an omnivorous insect predator. Oecologia 1996, 105, 214–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Armer, C.A.; Wiedenmann, R.N.; Bush, D.R. Plant feeding site selection on soybean by the facultatively phytophagous predator Orius insidiosus. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 1998, 86, 109–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Wong, S.K.; Frank, S.D. Pollen increases fitness and abundance of Orius insidiosus Say (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) on banker plants. Biol. Control 2013, 64, 45–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Silveira, L.C.P.; Bueno, V.H.P.; Van Lenteren, J.C. Orius insidiosus as biological control agent of Thrips in greenhouse chrysanthemums in the tropics. Bull. Insectology 2004, 57, 103–109. [Google Scholar]
  12. Tuan, S.J.; Lin, Y.H.; Peng, S.C.; Lai, W.H. Predatory efficacy of Orius strigicollis (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) against Tetranychus urticae (Acarina: Tetranychidae) on strawberry. J. Asia-Pac. Entomol. 2016, 19, 109–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Xu, X.; Borgemeister, C.; Poehling, H.M. Interactions in the biological control of western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) and two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch by the predatory bug Orius insidiosus Say on beans. Biol. Control 2006, 36, 57–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Pumariño, L.; Alomar, O. The role of omnivory in the conservation of predators: Orius majusculus (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) on sweet alyssum. Biol. Control 2012, 62, 24–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Calixto, A.M.; Bueno, V.H.P.; Montes, F.C.; Silva, A.C.; van Lenteren, J.C. Effect of different diets on reproduction, longevity and predation capacity of Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 2013, 23, 1245–1255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Cocuzza, G.E.; De Clercq, P.; Van De Veire, M.; De Cock, A.; Degheele, D.; Vacante, V. Reproduction of Orius laevigatus and Orius albidipennis on pollen and Ephestia kuehniella eggs. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 1997, 82, 101–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Naranjo, S.E.; Stimac, J.L. Development, Survival, and Reproduction of Geocoris punctipes (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae): Effects of Plant Feeding on Soybean and Associated Weeds. Environ. Entomol. 1985, 14, 523–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Ruberson, J.R.; Tauber, M.J.; Tauber, C.A. Plant Feeding by Podisus maculiventris (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae): Effect on Survival, Development, and Preoviposition Period. Environ. Entomol. 1986, 15, 894–897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Labbé, R.M.; Gagnier, D.; Kostic, A.; Shipp, L. The function of supplemental foods for improved crop establishment of generalist predators Orius insidiosus and Dicyphus hesperus. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 17790. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Marcossi, Í.; Fonseca, M.M.; Carbajal, P.A.F.; Cardoso, A.; Pallini, A.; Janssen, A. High-quality alternative food reduces cannibalism in the predatory mite Amblyseius herbicolus (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Exp. Appl. Acarol. 2020, 81, 189–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Panthi, B.R.; Renkema, J.M.; Lahiri, S.; Liburd, O.E. The Short-Range Movement of Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and Rate of Spread of Feeding Injury among Strawberry Plants. Environ. Entomol. 2021, 50, 12–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Seal, D.R.; Ciomperlik, M.A.; Richards, M.L.; Klassen, W. Distribution of chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), in pepper fields and pepper plants on St. Vincent. Fla. Entomol. 2006, 89, 311–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Funderburk, J.; Diffie, S.; Sharma, J.; Hodges, A.; Osborne, L. Thrips of Ornamentals in the Southeastern US. EDIS 2008, 2008, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Hodges, G.; Edwards, G.B. Chilli Thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) A New Pest Thrips for Florida. Pest Alert. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industries. 2005; FDACS-P-01660; pp. 1–3. Available online: https://ccmedia.fdacs.gov/content/download/68187/file/Pest_Alert_-_Scirtothrips_dorsalis,_Chilli_Thrips.pdf (accessed on 23 September 2025).
  25. Kumar, V.; Kakkar, G.; Seal, D.R.; McKenzie, C.L.; Colee, J.; Osborne, L.S. Temporal and spatial distribution of an invasive thrips species Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Crop Prot. 2014, 55, 80–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Kaur, G.; Stelinski, L.L.; Martini, X.; Boyd, N.; Lahiri, S. Reduced insecticide susceptibility among populations of Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in strawberry production. J. Appl. Entomol. 2023, 147, 271–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Lahiri, S.; Yambisa, A. Efficacy of a Biopesticide and Predatory Mite to Manage Chilli Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in Strawberry. Fla. Entomol. 2021, 104, 322–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Salas-Aguilar, J.; Ehler, L.E. Feeding-Habits of Orius tristicolor Hemiptera-Anthocoridae. Ann Entomol Soc Am 1977, 70, 60–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Bonte, J.; Vangansbeke, D.; Maes, S.; Bonte, M.; Conlong, D.; De Clercq, P. Moisture source and diet affect development and reproduction of Orius thripoborus and Orius naivashae, two predatory anthocorids from Southern Africa. J. Insect Sci. 2012, 12, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Blackburn, D.; Shapiro-Ilan, D.I.; Adams, B.J. Biological control and nutrition: Food for thought. Biol. Control 2016, 97, 131–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Lemos, F.; Bajda, S.; Duarte, M.V.A.; Alba, J.M.; Van Leeuwen, T.; Pallini, A.; Sabelis and, M.W.; Janssen, A. Imperfect diet choice reduces the performance of a predatory mite. Oecologia 2023, 201, 929–939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Bueno, V.H.P.; Mendes, S.M.; Carvalho, L.M. Evaluation of a rearing-method for the predator Orius insidiosus. Bull Insectology 2006, 59, 1–6. [Google Scholar]
  33. Ajila, H.E.V.; Michaud, J.P.; Abdelwahab, A.H.; Kuchta, S.V.; Stowe, H.E. How Efficient Is Fertilization by Traumatic Insemination in Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae)? J. Econ. Entomol. 2019, 112, 1618–1622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Lundgren, J.G. Reproductive ecology of predaceous Heteroptera. Biol. Control 2011, 59, 37–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Ferkovich, S.M.; Shapiro, J.P. Comparison of prey-derived and non-insect supplements on egg-laying of Orius insidiosus maintained on artificial diet as adults. Biol. Control 2004, 31, 57–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Ferkovich, S.M.; Venkatesan, T.; Shapiro, J.P.; Carpenter, J.E. Presentation of artificial diet: Effects of composition and size of prey domes on egg production by Orius insidiosus (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae). Fla. Entomol. 2007, 90, 502–508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Carrillo-Arámbula, L.; Infante, F. Development, Survival, and Reproduction of Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) Reared on Frankliniella invasor (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). J. Insect Sci. 2021, 21, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Tommasini, M.G.; Van Lenteren, J.C.; Burgio, G. Biological traits and prédation capacity of four Orius species on two prey species. Bull. Insectology 2004, 57, 79–93. [Google Scholar]
  39. Schmidt, J.O.; Buchmann, S.L.; Glaum, M. The nutritional value of Typha latifolia pollen for bees. J. Apic. Res. 1989, 28, 155–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Thakur, M.; Nanda, V. Composition and functionality of bee pollen: A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 98, 82–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Specty, O.; Febvay, G.; Grenier, S.; Delobel, B.; Piotte, C.; Pageaux, J.F.; Ferran, A.; Guilaud, J. Nutritional plasticity of the predatory ladybeetle Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae): Comparison between natural and substitution prey. Arch. Insect. Biochem. Physiol. 2003, 52, 81–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. De Clercq, P.; Bonte, M.; Van Speybroeck, K.; Bolckmans, K.; Deforce, K. Development and reproduction of Adalia bipunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on eggs of Ephestia kuehniella (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) and pollen. Pest Manag. Sci. 2005, 61, 1129–1132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Leather, S.R. Size, Reproductive Potential and Fecundity in Insects: Things aren’t as Simple as They Seem. Oikos 1988, 51, 386–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Bonte, M.; De Clercq, P. Developmental and reproductive fitness of Orius laevigatus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) reared on factitious and artificial diets. J. Econ. Entomol. 2008, 101, 1127–1133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Pehlİvan, S. Influence of the eggs of Ephestia kuehniella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) reared on different diets on the performance of the predatory bug Orius laevigatus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Eur. J. Entomol. 2021, 118, 51–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Lorenzo, M.E.; Bao, L.; Mendez, L.; Grille, G.; Bonato, O.; Basso, C. Effect of Two Oviposition Feeding Substrates on Orius insidiosus and Orius tristicolor (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Fla. Entomol. 2019, 102, 395–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Savola, E.; Vale, P.F.; Walling, C.A. Larval diet affects adult reproduction, but not survival, independent of the effect of injury and infection in Drosophila melanogaster. J. Insect Physiol. 2022, 142, 104428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Tan, J.; Paradise, M.S.; Levine, S.L.; Bachman, P.M.; Uffman, J.P.; Jiang, C.; Carson, D.B. Development and survival of Orius insidiosus (Say) nymphs on encapsulated bee pollen-based diet in a Tier-I toxicity assay. Environ. Entomol. 2011, 40, 1613–1621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Leon-Beck, M.; Coll, M. Plant and prey consumption cause a similar reductions in cannibalism by an omnivorous bug. J. Insect Behav. 2007, 20, 67–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Vangansbeke, D.; Nguyen, D.T.; Audenaert, J.; Verhoeven, R.; Deforce, K.; Gobin, B.; Tirry, L.; De Clercq, P. Diet-dependent cannibalism in the omnivorous phytoseiid mite Amblydromalus limonicus. Biol. Control 2014, 74, 30–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Chen, L.; Fadamiro, H.Y. Comparing the effects of five naturally occurring monosaccharide and oligosaccharide sugars on longevity and carbohydrate nutrient levels of a parasitic phorid fly, Pseudacteon tricuspis. Physiol. Entomol. 2006, 31, 46–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Bernklau, E.J.; Hibbard, B.E.; Bjostad, L.B. Sugar preferences of western corn rootworm larvae in a feeding stimulant blend. J. Appl. Entomol. 2018, 142, 947–958. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Lemos, W.P.; Ramalho, F.S.; Serrão, J.E.; Zanuncio, J.C. Effects of diet on development of Podisus nigrispinus (Dallas) (Het., Pentatomidae), a predator of the cotton leafworm. J. Appl. Entomol. 2003, 127, 389–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Ramachandran, S.; Funderburk, J.; Stavisky, J.; Olson, S. Population abundance and movement of Frankliniella species and Orius insidiosus in field pepper. Agric. For. Entomol. 2001, 3, 129–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 1. Mean (±SE) total fecundity of Orius insidiosus adult females reared on different diets. N = number of replicates. For most diets, N = 10 females per trial; Bee pollen: N = 10 (Trial 1), 9 (Trial 2); Honey solution: N = 4 (Trial 1), 5 (Trial 2). p-values of overall ANOVA obtained by Proc GLIMMIX (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Different letters indicate a significant difference among diets (p < 0.05, post hoc Tukey’s HSD test).
Table 1. Mean (±SE) total fecundity of Orius insidiosus adult females reared on different diets. N = number of replicates. For most diets, N = 10 females per trial; Bee pollen: N = 10 (Trial 1), 9 (Trial 2); Honey solution: N = 4 (Trial 1), 5 (Trial 2). p-values of overall ANOVA obtained by Proc GLIMMIX (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Different letters indicate a significant difference among diets (p < 0.05, post hoc Tukey’s HSD test).
DietTrial 1Trial 2
ReplicationFecundityReplicationFecundity
E. kuehniella eggs + honey10141.3 ± 5.69 A10123.5 ± 5.84 A
S. dorsalis + honey1062.8 ± 2.78 B1078.1 ± 3.19 B
Cattail pollen + honey1035.9 ± 1.99 C1040.8 ± 1.31 C
Bee pollen+ honey1029.8 ± 1.23 C928.00 ± 1.82 C
Honey41.00 ± 0.41 D50.8 ± 0.49 D
Table 2. Mean (±SE) oviposition per day per female of Orius insidiosus adult reared on different diets. N = number of replicates. For most diets, N = 10 females per trial; Bee pollen: N = 10 (Trial 1), 9 (Trial 2); Honey solution: N = 4 (Trial 1), 5 (Trial 2). p-values of overall ANOVA obtained by Proc GLIMMIX (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Different letters indicate a significant difference among diets (p < 0.05, post hoc Tukey’s HSD test).
Table 2. Mean (±SE) oviposition per day per female of Orius insidiosus adult reared on different diets. N = number of replicates. For most diets, N = 10 females per trial; Bee pollen: N = 10 (Trial 1), 9 (Trial 2); Honey solution: N = 4 (Trial 1), 5 (Trial 2). p-values of overall ANOVA obtained by Proc GLIMMIX (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Different letters indicate a significant difference among diets (p < 0.05, post hoc Tukey’s HSD test).
DietTrial 1Trial 2
ReplicationDaily OvipositionReplicationDaily Oviposition
E. kuehniella eggs + honey105.75 ± 0.30 A105.17 ± 0.28 A
S. dorsalis + honey102.88 ± 0.07 B103.54 ± 0.23 B
Cattail pollen + honey101.83 ± 0.09 C102.65 ± 0.15 C
Bee pollen+ honey101.53 ± 0.06 C91.92 ± 0.07 C
Honey40.42 ± 0.14 D50.26 ± 0.16 D
Table 3. Mean (±SE) adult longevity in days of Orius insidiosus females reared on different diets. N = number of replicates. For most diets, N = 10 females per trial; Bee pollen: N = 10 (Trial 1), 9 (Trial 2); Honey solution: N = 4 (Trial 1), 5 (Trial 2). p-values of overall ANOVA obtained by Proc GLIMMIX (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Different letters indicate a significant difference among diets (p < 0.05, post hoc Tukey’s HSD test).
Table 3. Mean (±SE) adult longevity in days of Orius insidiosus females reared on different diets. N = number of replicates. For most diets, N = 10 females per trial; Bee pollen: N = 10 (Trial 1), 9 (Trial 2); Honey solution: N = 4 (Trial 1), 5 (Trial 2). p-values of overall ANOVA obtained by Proc GLIMMIX (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Different letters indicate a significant difference among diets (p < 0.05, post hoc Tukey’s HSD test).
DietTrial 1Trial 2
ReplicationAdult Longevity (Days)ReplicationAdult Longevity (Days)
E. kuehniella eggs + honey1029.6 ± 0.73 A1031.4 ± 1.11 A
S. dorsalis + honey1025.4 ± 0.69 B1026.2 ± 0.88 B
Cattail pollen + honey1021.6 ± 0.79 C1018.2 ± 0.66 C
Bee pollen+ honey1021.0 ± 0.62 C917.11 ± 0.81 C
Honey42.25 ± 0.25 D52.4 ± 0.88 D
Table 4. Mean (±SE) of the length of reproductive period of Orius insidiosus adult females reared on different diets. N = number of replicates. For most diets, N = 10 females per trial; Bee pollen: N = 10 (Trial 1), 9 (Trial 2); Honey solution: N = 4 (Trial 1), 5 (Trial 2). p-values of overall ANOVA obtained by Proc GLIMMIX (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Different letters indicate a significant difference among diets (p < 0.05, post hoc Tukey’s HSD test).
Table 4. Mean (±SE) of the length of reproductive period of Orius insidiosus adult females reared on different diets. N = number of replicates. For most diets, N = 10 females per trial; Bee pollen: N = 10 (Trial 1), 9 (Trial 2); Honey solution: N = 4 (Trial 1), 5 (Trial 2). p-values of overall ANOVA obtained by Proc GLIMMIX (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Different letters indicate a significant difference among diets (p < 0.05, post hoc Tukey’s HSD test).
DietTrial 1Trial 2
ReplicationReproductive Period (Days) ReplicationReproductive Period (Days)
E. kuehniella eggs + honey1024.8 ± 0.771 A10 24 ± 0.73 A
S. dorsalis + honey1022 ± 0.774 AB1021.6 ± 0.81 A
Cattail pollen + honey1019.7 ± 0.76 B1015.3 ± 0.57 B
Bee pollen+ honey1019.3 ± 0.71 B914.77 ± 0.878 B
Honey41.00 ± 0.408 C50.8 ± 0.489 C
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Adhikary, L.; Smith, H.A.; Lahiri, S. Effects of Prey and Pollen Diets on the Reproduction and Longevity of Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), a Key Thrips Predator. Insects 2025, 16, 1160. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16111160

AMA Style

Adhikary L, Smith HA, Lahiri S. Effects of Prey and Pollen Diets on the Reproduction and Longevity of Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), a Key Thrips Predator. Insects. 2025; 16(11):1160. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16111160

Chicago/Turabian Style

Adhikary, Lovely, Hugh Adam Smith, and Sriyanka Lahiri. 2025. "Effects of Prey and Pollen Diets on the Reproduction and Longevity of Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), a Key Thrips Predator" Insects 16, no. 11: 1160. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16111160

APA Style

Adhikary, L., Smith, H. A., & Lahiri, S. (2025). Effects of Prey and Pollen Diets on the Reproduction and Longevity of Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), a Key Thrips Predator. Insects, 16(11), 1160. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16111160

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop