Emerging Biomarkers for Early Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Etiopathological Aspects of Chronic Kidney Disease
3. Biomarkers of Glomerular Injury
3.1. Dendrin
3.2. Nephrin
3.3. Podocin
3.4. Podocalyxin
3.5. Immunoglobulin G
3.6. c-Myb
4. Biomarkers of Tubulointerstitial Injury
4.1. Kidney Injury Molecule-1
4.2. Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin (NGAL)
4.3. Liver Fatty Acid-Binding Protein (L-FABP)
4.4. Interleukin 18
4.5. Uromodulin
4.6. Vanin 1
4.7. Galectin-3
5. The Role of Omics in Early Detection of CKD
6. Microbiota and CKD
7. MicroRNA in Early Detection of CKD
8. Challenges in Early CKD Diagnosis
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Webster, A.C.; Nagler, E.V.; Morton, R.L.; Masson, P. Chronic Kidney Disease. Lancet 2017, 389, 1238–1252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lv, J.C.; Zhang, L.X. Prevalence and Disease Burden of Chronic Kidney Disease. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol 2019, 1165, 3–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Watson, D.; Yang, J.Y.C.; Sarwal, R.D.; Sigdel, T.K.; Liberto, J.M.; Damm, I.; Louie, V.; Sigdel, S.; Livingstone, D.; Soh, K.; et al. A Novel Multi-Biomarker Assay for Non-Invasive Quantitative Monitoring of Kidney Injury. J. Clin. Med. 2019, 8, 499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hill, N.R.; Fatoba, S.T.; Oke, J.L.; Hirst, J.A.; O’Callaghan, C.A.; Lasserson, D.S.; Hobbs, F.D.R. Global Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0158765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- GBD Chronic Kidney Disease Collaboration. Global, regional, and national burden of chronic kidney disease, 1990–2017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet 2020, 395, 709–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Said, S.; Hernandez, G.T. The link between chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. J. Nephropathol. 2014, 3, 99–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gansevoort, R.T.; Correa-Rotter, R.; Hemmelgarn, B.R.; Jafar, T.H.; Heerspink, H.J.L.; Mann, J.F.; Matsushita, K.; Wen, C.P. Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular risk: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and prevention. Lancet 2013, 382, 339–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, W.R.; Parikh, C.R. Biomarkers of Acute and Chronic Kidney Disease. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2019, 81, 309–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pasala, S.; Carmody, J.B. How to use serum creatinine, cystatin C and GFR. Arch. Dis. Child. Educ. Pract. Ed. 2017, 102, 37–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Steubl, D.; Block, M.; Herbst, V.; Nockher, W.A.; Schlumberger, W.; Satanovskij, R.; Angermann, S.; Hasenau, A.L.; Stecher, L.; Heemann, U.; et al. Plasma Uromodulin Correlates with Kidney Function and Identifies Early Stages in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients. Medicine 2016, 95, e3011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, K.Z.; Tian, G.; Ko, A.C.T.; Geissler, M.; Brassard, D.; Veres, T. Detection of renal biomarkers in chronic kidney disease using microfluidics: Progress, challenges and opportunities. Biomed. Microdevices 2020, 22, 29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uwaezuoke, S.N.; Ayuk, A.C.; Muoneke, V.U.; Mbanefo, N.R. Chronic kidney disease in children: Using novel biomarkers as predictors of disease. Saudi J. Kidney Dis. Transpl. 2018, 29, 775–784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pichaiwong, W.; Homsuwan, W.; Leelahavanichkul, A. The prevalence of normoalbuminuria and renal impairment in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin. Nephrol. 2019, 92, 73–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Inker, L.A.; Tighiouart, H.; Coresh, J.; Foster, M.C.; Anderson, A.H.; Beck, G.J.; Contreras, G.; Greene, T.; Karger, A.B.; Kusek, J.W. GFR Estimation Using β-Trace Protein and β2-Microglobulin in CKD. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2016, 67, 40–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Krstic, D.; Tomic, N.; Radosavljevic, B.; Avramovic, N.; Dragutinovic, V.; Radojevic Skodric, S.; Colovic, M. Biochemical Markers of Renal Function. Curr. Med. Chem. 2016, 23, 2018–2040. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Luciano, R.L.; Moeckel, G.W. Update on the native kidney biopsy: Core curriculum. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2019, 73, 404–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hruby, Z.; Smolska, D.; Filipowski, H.; Rabczyński, J.; Cieślar, E.; Kopeć, W.; Dulawa, J. The importance of tubulointerstitial injury in the early phase of primary glomerular disease. J. Intern. Med. 1998, 243, 215–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- D’Marco, L.; Bellasi, A.; Raggi, P. Cardiovascular biomarkers in chronic kidney disease: State of current research and clinical applicability. Dis. Markers 2015, 2015, 586569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fassett, R.G.; Venuthurupalli, S.K.; Gobe, G.C.; Coombes, J.S.; Cooper, M.A.; Hoy, W.E. Biomarkers in chronic kidney disease: A review. Kidney Int. 2011, 80, 806–821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Neuner-Jehle, M.; Denizot, J.P.; Borbély, A.A.; Mallet, J. Characterization and sleep deprivation-induced expression modulation of dendrin, a novel dendritic protein in rat brain neurons. J. Neurosci. Res. 1996, 46, 138–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dunér, F.; Patrakka, J.; Xiao, Z.; Larsson, J.; Vlamis-Gardikas, A.; Pettersson, E.; Tryggvason, K.; Hultenby, K.; Wernerson, A. Dendrin expression in glomerulogenesis and in human minimal change nephrotic syndrome. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2008, 23, 2504–2511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Asanuma, K.; Campbell, K.N.; Kim, K.; Faul, C.; Mundel, P. Nuclear relocation of the nephrin and CD2AP-binding protein dendrin promotes apoptosis of podocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 10134–10139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Asanuma, K.; Akiba-Takagi, M.; Kodama, F.; Asao, R.; Nagai, Y.; Lydia, A.; Fukuda, H.; Tanaka, E.; Shibata, T.; Takahara, H.; et al. Dendrin location in podocytes is associated with disease progression in animal and human glomerulopathy. Am. J. Nephrol. 2011, 33, 537–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mizdrak, M.; Vukojević, K.; Filipović, N.; Čapkun, V.; Benzon, B.; Durdov, M.G. Expression of DENDRIN in several glomerular diseases and correlation to pathological parameters and renal failure—Preliminary study. Diagn. Pathol. 2018, 13, 90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kodama, F.; Asanuma, K.; Takagi, M.; Hidaka, T.; Asanuma, E.; Fukuda, H.; Seki, T.; Takeda, Y.; Hosoe-Nagai, Y.; Asao, R.; et al. Translocation of dendrin to the podocyte nucleus in acute glomerular injury in patients with IgA nephropathy. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2013, 28, 1762–1772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kandasamy, Y.; Smith, R.; Lumbers, E.R.; Rudd, D. Nephrin—A biomarker of early glomerular injury. Biomark. Res. 2014, 2, 21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Akankwasa, G.; Jianhua, L.; Guixue, C.; Changjuan, A.; Xiaosong, Q. Urine markers of podocyte dysfunction: A review of podocalyxin and nephrin in selected glomerular diseases. Biomark. Med. 2018, 12, 927–935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kestila, M.; Lenkkeri, U.; Mannikko, M.; Lamerdin, J.; McCready, P.; Putaala, H.; Ruotsalainen, V.; Morita, T.; Nissinen, M.; Herva, R.; et al. Positionally cloned gene for a novel glomerular protein-nephrin-is mutated in congenital nephrotic syndrome. Mol. Cell 1998, 1, 575–582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Camici, M. Urinary biomarkers of podocyte injury. Biomark Med. 2008, 2, 613–616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kostovska, I.; Tosheska-Trajkovska, K.; Topuzovska, S.; Cekovska, S.; Spasovski, G.; Kostovski, O.; Labudovic, D. Urinary nephrin is earlier, more sensitive and specific marker of diabetic nephropathy than microalbuminuria. J. Med. Biochem. 2020, 39, 83–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Surya, M.; Rajappa, M.; Vadivelan, M. Utility of Urinary Nephrin in Patients with and Without Diabetic Nephropathy and Its Correlation with Albuminuria. Cureus 2021, 13, e20102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kondapi, K.; Kumar, N.L.; Moorthy, S.; Silambanan, S. A Study of Association of Urinary Nephrin with Albuminuria in Patients with Diabetic Nephropathy. Indian J. Nephrol. 2021, 31, 142–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jim, B.; Ghanta, M.; Qipo, A.; Fan, Y.; Chuang, P.Y.; Cohen, H.W.; Abadi, M.; Thomas, D.B.; He, J.C. Dysregulated nephrin in diabetic nephropathy of type 2 diabetes: A cross sectional study. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e36041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huber, T.B.; Simons, M.; Hartleben, B.; Sernetz, L.; Schmidts, M.; Gundlach, E.; Saleem, M.A.; Walz, G.; Benzing, T. Molecular basis of the functional podocin–nephrin complex: Mutations in the NPHS2 gene disrupt nephrin targeting to lipid raft microdomains. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2003, 12, 3397–3405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mollet, G.; Ratelade, J.; Boyer, O.; Onetti Muda, A.; Morisset, L.; Aguirre Lavin, T.; Kitzis, D.; Dallman, M.J.; Bugeon, L.; Hubner, N.; et al. Podocin inactivation in mature kidneys causes focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and nephrotic syndrome. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2009, 20, 2181–2189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- ElShaarawy, A.; Abdelmoneim Behairy, M.; Bawady, S.A.; Abdelsattar, H.A.; Shadad, E. Urinary podocin level as a predictor of diabetic kidney disease. J. Nephropathol. 2019, 8, e26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rahman, H.S.A.; Hadhoud, K.; Bakr, H.G.; Youssef, M.K. Assessment of Urinary Podocin Level as an Early Indicator in Diabetic Nephropathy. Zagazig Univ. Med. J. 2019, 25, 682–688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakamura, T.; Ushiyama, C.; Suzuki, S.; Hara, M.; Shimada, N.; Ebihara, I.; Koide, H. Urinary excretion of podocytes in patients with diabetic nephropathy. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2000, 15, 1379–1383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kostovska, I.; Tosheska Trajkovska, K.; Cekovska, S.; Topuzovska, S.; Brezovska Kavrakova, J.; Spasovski, G.; Kostovski, O.; Labudovic, D. Role of urinary podocalyxin in early diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy. Rom. J. Intern. Med. 2020, 58, 233–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Asao, R.; Asanuma, K.; Kodama, F.; Akiba-Takagi, M.; Nagai-Hosoe, Y.; Seki, T.; Takeda, Y.; Ohsawa, I.; Mano, S.; Matsuoka, K.; et al. Relationships between levels of urinary podocalyxin, number of urinary podocytes, and histologic injury in adult patients with IgA nephropathy. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2012, 7, 1385–1393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeng, J.; Zhang, X.; Yu, R.; Tang, Y.; Luo, W.J.; Chen, C.; Wu, Y.J. Research on the combined detection of urine UmAlb and urinary nephrin, podocalyxin in podocyte of MKR mice with diabetic nephropathy. Sichuan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2015, 46, 722–725. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Zheng, M.; Lv, L.L.; Ni, J.; Ni, H.F.; Li, Q.; Ma, K.L.; Liu, B.C. Urinary podocyte-associated mRNA profile in various stages of diabetic nephropathy. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e20431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Musa, N.; Ramzy, T.; Hamdy, A.; Arafa, N.; Hassan, M. Assessment of urinary podocalyxin as a marker of glomerular injury in obesity-related kidney disease in children and adolescents with obesity compared to urinary albumin creatinine ratio. Clin. Obes. 2021, 11, e12452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ikuma, D.; Hiromura, K.; Kajiyama, H.; Suwa, J.; Ikeuchi, H.; Sakairi, T.; Kaneko, Y.; Maeshima, A.; Kurosawa, H.; Hirayama, Y.; et al. The correlation of urinary podocytes and podocalyxin with histological features of lupus nephritis. Lupus 2018, 27, 484–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hou, J.; Cheng, Y.; Hou, Y.; Wu, H. Lower Serum and Higher Urine Immunoglobulin G Are Associated with an Increased Severity of Idiopathic Membranous Nephropathy. Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci. 2019, 49, 777–784. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Hu, Q.; Wu, K.; Pan, W.; Zeng, Y.; Hu, K.; Chen, D.; Huang, X.; Zhang, Q. Intestinal flora alterations in patients with early chronic kidney disease: A case-control study among the Han population in southwestern China. J. Int. Med. Res. 2020, 48, 300060520926033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kalita, P.; Mishra, J.; Dey, B.; Barman, H.; Lyngdoh, M. Association of Co-dominant Immunoglobulin G Deposit in Immunoglobulin A Nephropathy with Poor Clinicopathological and Laboratory Parameters. Cureus 2021, 13, e15813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dudreuilh, C.; Fakhouri, F.; Vigneau, C.; Augusto, J.F.; Machet, M.C.; Rabot, N.; Chapal, M.; Charpy, V.; Barbet, C.; Büchler, M.; et al. The Presence of Renal IgG Deposits in Necrotizing Crescentic Glomerulonephritis Associated with ANCA Is Not Related to Worse Renal Clinical Outcomes. Kidney Dis. 2020, 6, 98–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yashima, I.; Hirayama, T.; Shiiki, H.; Kanauchi, M.; Dohi, K. Diagnostic significance of urinary immunoglobulin G in diabetic nephropathy. Nihon Jinzo Gakkai Shi 1999, 41, 787–796. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Abdou, A.E.; Anani, H.A.A.; Ibrahim, H.F.; Ebrahem, E.E.; Seliem, N.; Youssef, E.M.I.; Ghoraba, N.M.; Hassan, A.S.; Ramadan, M.A.A.; Mahmoud, E.; et al. Urinary IgG, serum CX3CL1 and miRNA-152-3p: As predictors of nephropathy in Egyptian type 2 diabetic patients. Tissue Barriers 2021, 1994823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Doi, T.; Moriya, T.; Fujita, Y.; Minagawa, N.; Usami, M.; Sasaki, T.; Abe, H.; Kishi, S.; Murakami, T.; Ouchi, M.; et al. Urinary IgG4 and Smad1 Are Specific Biomarkers for Renal Structural and Functional Changes in Early Stages of Diabetic Nephropathy. Diabetes 2018, 67, 986–993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Singh, S.S.; Heijmans, R.; Meulen, K.K.E.; Lieverse, A.G.; Gornik, O.; Sijbrands, E.J.G.; Lauc, G.; van Hoek, M. Association of the IgG N-glycome with the course of kidney function in type 2 diabetes. BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care 2020, 8, e001026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- George, L.O.; Ness, A.S. Situational awareness: Regulation of the Myb transcription factor in differentiation, the cell cycle and oncogenesis. Cancers 2014, 6, 2049–2071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peinado, H.; Olmeda, D.; Cano, A. Snail, Zeb and bHLH factors in tumour progression: An alliance against the epithelial phenotype? Nat. Rev. Cancer 2007, 7, 415–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, J.; Weinberg, R.A. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition: At the crossroads of development and tumor metastasis. Dev. Cell 2008, 14, 818–829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Savagner, P.; Yamada, K.M.; Thiery, J.P. The zinc-finger protein slug causes desmosome dissociation, an initial and necessary step for growth factor-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition. J. Cell Biol. 1997, 137, 1403–1419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mizdrak, M.; Filipović, N.; Vukojević, K.; Čapkun, V.; Mizdrak, I.; Durdov, M.G. Prognostic value of connective tissue growth factor and c-Myb expression in IgA nephropathy and Henoch-Schönlein purpura-A pilot immunohistochemical study. Acta Histochem. 2020, 122, 151479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Geng, J.; Qiu, Y.; Qin, Z.; Su, B. The value of kidney injury molecule 1 in predicting acute kidney injury in adult patients: A systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis. J. Transl. Med. 2021, 19, 105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bonventre, J.V. Kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1): A urinary biomarker and much more. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2009, 24, 3265–3268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Song, J.; Yu, J.; Prayogo, G.W.; Cao, W.; Wu, Y.; Jia, Z.; Zhang, A. Understanding kidney injury molecule 1: A novel immune factor in kidney pathophysiology. Am. J. Transl. Res. 2019, 11, 1219–1229. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Han, W.K.; Bailly, V.; Abichandani, R.; Thadhani, R.; Bonventre, J.V. Kidney Injury Molecule-1 (KIM-1): A novel biomarker for human renal proximal tubule injury. Kidney Int. 2002, 62, 237–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Guo, L.; Zhu, B.; Yuan, H.; Zhao, W. Evaluation of serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin in older patients with chronic kidney disease. Aging Med. 2020, 3, 32–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bolignano, D.; Donato, V.; Coppolino, G.; Campo, S.; Buemi, A.; Lacquaniti, A.; Buemi, M. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as a marker of kidney damage. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2008, 52, 595–605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rysz, J.; Gluba-Brzózka, A.; Franczyk, B.; Jabłonowski, Z.; Ciałkowska-Rysz, A. Novel Biomarkers in the Diagnosis of Chronic Kidney Disease and the Prediction of Its Outcome. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 1702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hosohata, K.; Matsuoka, H.; Iwanaga, K.; Kumagai, E. Urinary vanin-1 associated with chronic kidney disease in hypertensive patients: A pilot study. J. Clin. Hypertens. 2020, 22, 1458–1465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Devarajan, P. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL): A new marker of kidney disease 1. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Investig. 2008, 68 (Suppl. S241), 89–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Li, A.; Yi, B.; Liu, Y.; Wang, J.; Dai, Q.; Huang, Y.; Li, Y.C.; Zhang, H. Urinary NGAL and RBP Are Biomarkers of Normoalbuminuric Renal Insufficiency in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. J. Immunol. Res. 2019, 2019, 5063089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, R.; Yao, C.; Liu, F. Association between Renal Podocalyxin Expression and Renal Dysfunction in Patients with Diabetic Nephropathy: A Single-Center, Retrospective Case-Control Study. Biomed. Res. Int. 2020, 2020, 7350781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xu, Y.; Xie, Y.; Shao, X.; Ni, Z.; Mou, S. L-FABP: A novel biomarker of kidney disease. Clin. Chim. Acta 2015, 445, 85–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kamijo-Ikemori, A.; Sugaya, T.; Kimura, K. L-type fatty acid binding protein (L-FABP) and kidney disease. Rinsho Byori 2014, 62, 163–170. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Holzscheiter, L.; Beck, C.; Rutz, S.; Manuilova, E.; Domke, I.; Guder, W.G.; Hofmann, W. NGAL, L-FABP, and KIM-1 in comparison to established markers of renal dysfunction. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2014, 52, 537–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hirooka, Y.; Nozaki, Y. Interleukin-18 in Inflammatory Kidney Disease. Front. Med. 2021, 8, 639103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Parikh, C.R.; Jani, A.; Melnikov, V.Y.; Faubel, S.; Edelstein, C.L. Urinary interleukin-18 is a marker of human acute tubular necrosis. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2004, 43, 405–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Parikh, C.R.; Devarajan, P. New biomarkers of acute kidney injury. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 36, S159–S165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liang, D.; Liu, H.F.; Yao, C.W.; Liu, H.Y.; Huang-Fu, C.M.; Chen, X.W.; Du, S.H.; Chen, X.W. Effects of interleukin 18 on injury and activation of human proximal tubular epithelial cells. Nephrology 2007, 12, 53–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Araki, S.; Haneda, M.; Koya, D.; Sugimoto, T.; Isshiki, K.; Chin-Kanasaki, M.; Uzu, T.; Kashiwagi, A. Predictive impact of elevated serum level of IL-18 for early renal dysfunction in type 2 diabetes: An observational follow-up study. Diabetologia 2007, 50, 867–873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Nakamura, A.; Shikata, K.; Hiramatsu, M.; Nakatou, T.; Kitamura, T.; Wada, J.; Itoshima, T.; Makino, H. Serum interleukin-18 levels are associated with nephropathy and atherosclerosis in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005, 28, 2890–2895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Moriwaki, Y.; Yamamoto, T.; Shibutani, Y.; Aoki, E.; Tsutsumi, Z.; Takahashi, S.; Okamura, H.; Koga, M.; Fukuchi, M.; Hada, T. Elevated levels of interleukin-18 and tumor necrosis factor-α in serum of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: Relationship with diabetic nephropathy. Metabolism 2003, 52, 605–608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hewins, P.; Morgan, M.D.; Holden, N.; Neil, D.; Williams, J.M.; Savage, C.O.S.; Harper, L. IL-18 is upregulated in the kidney and primes neutrophil responsiveness in ANCA-associated vasculitis. Kidney Int. 2006, 69, 605–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shi, B.; Ni, Z.; Cao, L.; Zhou, M.; Mou, S.; Wang, Q.; Zhang, M.; Fang, W. Serum IL-18 is closely associated with renal tubulointerstitial injury and predicts renal prognosis in IgA nephropathy. Mediat. Inflamm. 2012, 2012, 728417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lhotta, K. Uromodulin and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2010, 33, 393–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schaeffer, C.; Devuyst, O.; Rampoldi, L. Uromodulin: Roles in Health and Disease. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2021, 83, 477–501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El-Achkar, T.M.; Wu, X.R. Uromodulin in Kidney Injury: An Instigator, Bystander, or Protector? Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2012, 59, 452–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Prajczer, S.; Heidenreich, U.; Pfaller, W.; Kotanko, P.; Lhotta, K.; Jennings, P. Evidence for a role of uromodulin in chronic kidney disease progression. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2010, 25, 1896–1903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fedak, D.; Kuźniewski, M.; Fugiel, A.; Wieczorek-Surdacka, E.; Przepiórkowska-Hoyer, B.; Jasik, P.; Miarka, P.; Dumnicka, P.; Kapusta, M.; Solnica, B.; et al. Serum uromodulin concentrations correlate with glomerular filtration rate in patients with chronic kidney disease. Pol. Arch. Med. Wewn. 2016, 126, 995–1004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Steubl, D.; Buzkova, P.; Garimella, P.S.; Ix, J.H.; Devarajan, P.; Bennett, M.R.; Chaves, P.H.M.; Shlipak, G.; Bansal, N.; Sarnak, M.J. Association of Serum Uromodulin with ESKD and Kidney Function Decline in the Elderly: The Cardiovascular Health Study. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2019, 74, 501–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bartucci, R.; Salvati, A.; Olinga, P.; Boersma, Y.L. Vanin 1: Its Physiological Function and Role in Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 3891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Washino, S.; Hosohata, K.; Jin, D.; Takai, S.; Miyagawa, T. Early urinary biomarkers of renal tubular damage by a high-salt intake independent of blood pressure in normotensive rats. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2018, 45, 261–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hosohata, K.; Matsuoka, H.; Kumagai, E. Association of urinary vanin-1 with kidney function decline in hypertensive patients. J. Clin. Hypertens. 2021, 23, 1316–1321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, D.Q.; Cao, G.; Chen, H.; Argyopoulos, C.P.; Yu, H.; Su, W.; Chen, L.; Samuels, D.S.; Zhuang, S.; Bayliss, G.P.; et al. Identification of serum metabolites associating with chronic kidney disease progression and anti-fibrotic effect of 5-methoxytryptophan. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 1476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dong, R.; Zhang, M.; Hu, Q.; Zheng, S.; Soh, A.; Zheng, Y.; Yuan, H. Galectin-3 as a novel biomarker for disease diagnosis and a target for therapy (Review). Rev. Int. J. Mol. Med. 2018, 41, 599–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Chen, S.C.; Kuo, P.L. The Role of Galectin-3 in the Kidneys. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Okamura, D.M.; Pasichnyk, K.; Lopez-Guisa, J.M.; Collins, S.; Hsu, D.K.; Liu, F.T.; Eddy, A.A. Galectin-3 preserves renal tubules and modulates extracellular matrix remodeling in progressive fibrosis. Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol. 2011, 300, F245–F253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hussain, S.; Habib, A.; Hussain, M.S.; Najmi, A.K. Potential biomarkers for early detection of diabetic kidney disease. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2020, 161, 108082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Katsumata, Y.; Okamoto, Y.; Moriyama, T.; Moriyama, R.; Kawamoto, M.; Hanaoka, M.; Uchida, K.; Nitta, K.; Harigai, M. Clinical usefulness of anti-M-type phospholipase-A-receptor antibodies in patients with membranous nephropathy and the comparison of three quantification methods. Immunol. Med. 2020, 43, 47–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Papadopoulos, T.; Krochmal, M.; Cisek, K.; Fernandes, M.; Husi, H.; Stevens, R.; Bascands, J.L.; Schanstra, J.P.; Klein, J. Omics Databases on Kidney Disease: Where They Can Be Found and How to Benefit from Them. Clin. Kidney J. 2016, 9, 343–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zhao, Y.Y. Metabolomics in chronic kidney disease. Clin. Chim. Acta 2013, 422, 59–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Govender, M.A.; Brandenburg, J.T.; Fabian, J.; Ramsay, M. The Use of ‘Omics for Diagnosing and Predicting Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease: A Scoping Review. Front. Genet. 2021, 12, 682929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pontillo, C.; Mischak, H. Urinary peptide-based classifier CKD273: Towards clinical application in chronic kidney disease. Biomolecules 2020, 10, 257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tofte, N.; Lindhardt, M.; Adamova, K.; Bakker, S.J.L.; Beige, J.; Beulens, J.W.J.; Birkenfeld, A.L.; Currie, G.; Delles, C.; Dimos, I.; et al. PRIORITY investigators. Early detection of diabetic kidney disease by urinary proteomics and subsequent intervention with spironolactone to delay progression (PRIORITY): A prospective observational study and embedded randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020, 8, 301–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romanova, Y.; Laikov, A.; Markelova, M.; Khadiullina, R.; Makseev, A.; Hasanova, M.; Rizvanov, A.; Khaiboullina, S.; Salafutdinov, I. Proteomic Analysis of Human Serum from Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hu, X.; Ouyang, S.; Xie, Y.; Gong, Z.; Du, J. Characterizing the gut microbiota in patients with chronic kidney disease. Postgrad Med. 2020, 132, 495–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wu, I.-W.; Gao, S.S.; Chou, H.C.; Yang, H.Y.; Chang, L.C.; Kuo, Y.L.; Dinh, M.C.V.; Chung, W.H.; Yang, C.W.; Lai, H.C.; et al. Integrative metagenomic and metabolomic analyses reveal severity-specific signatures of gut microbiota in chronic kidney disease. Theranostics 2020, 10, 5398–5411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mertowska, P.; Mertowski, S.; Wojnicka, J.; Korona-Głowniak, I.; Grywalska, E.; Błażewicz, A.; Załuska, W. A Link between Chronic Kidney Disease and Gut Microbiota in Immunological and Nutritional Aspects. Nutrients 2021, 13, 3637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cigarran Guldris, S.; González Parra, E.; Cases Amenós, A. Gut microbiota in chronic kidney disease. Nefrologia 2017, 37, 9–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Shah, N.B.; Allegretti, A.S.; Nigwekar, S.U.; Kalim, S.; Zhao, S.; Lelouvier, B.; Servant, F.; Serena, G.; Thadhani, R.I.; Raj, D.S.; et al. Blood Microbiome Profile in CKD: A Pilot Study. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2019, 14, 692–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- O’Brien, J.; Hayder, H.; Zayed, Y.; Peng, C. Overview of MicroRNA Biogenesis, Mechanisms of Actions, and Circulation. Front. Endocrinol. 2018, 9, 402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Franczyk, B.; Gluba-Brzózka, A.; Olszewski, R.; Parolczyk, M.; Rysz-Górzyńska, M.; Rysz, J. miRNA biomarkers in renal disease. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 2021, 54, 575–588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Abdelsalam, M.; Wahab, A.M.; El Sayed Zaki, M.; Motawea, M. MicroRNA-451 as an Early Predictor of Chronic Kidney Disease in Diabetic Nephropathy. Int. J. Nephrol. 2020, 2020, 8075376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumari, M.; Mohan, A.; Ecelbarger, C.M.; Gupta, A.; Prasad, N.; Tiwari, S. miR-451 Loaded Exosomes Are Released by the Renal Cells in Response to Injury and Associated with Reduced Kidney Function in Human. Front. Physiol. 2020, 11, 234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hussein El-Samahy, M.; Adly, A.A.; Ibrahim Elhenawy, Y.; Ismail, E.A.; Abdelmalik Pessar, S.; El-Sayed Mowafy, M.; Saad, M.S.; Mohammed, H.H. Urinary miRNA-377 and miRNA-216a as biomarkers of nephropathy and subclinical atherosclerotic risk in pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes. J. Diabetes Complicat. 2018, 32, 185–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khurana, R.; Ranches, G.; Schafferer, S.; Lukasser, M.; Rudnicki, M.; Mayer, G.; Hüttenhofer, A. Identification of urinary exosomal noncoding RNAs as novel biomarkers in chronic kidney disease. RNA 2017, 23, 142–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Donderski, R.; Szczepanek, J.; Naruszewicz, N.; Naruszewicz, R.; Tretyn, A.; Skoczylas-Makowska, N.; Tyloch, J.; Odrowąż-Sypniewska, G.; Manitius, J. Analysis of profibrogenic microRNAs (miRNAs) expression in urine and serum of chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 1–4 patients and their relationship with proteinuria and kidney function. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 2021, 54, 937–947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peters, L.J.F.; Floege, J.; Biessen, E.A.L.; Jankowski, J.; van der Vorst, E.P.C. MicroRNAs in Chronic Kidney Disease: Four Candidates for Clinical Application. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 6547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tonelli, M.; Dickinson, J.A. Early Detection of CKD: Implications for Low-Income, Middle-Income, and High-Income Countries. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2020, 31, 1931–1940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alexander, S.; Varughese, S.; Franklin, R.; Roy, S.; Rebekah, G.; George David, V.; Mohapatra, A.; Valson, A.T.; Jacob, S.; Koshy, P.M.; et al. Epidemiology, baseline characteristics and risk of progression in the first South-Asian prospective longitudinal observational IgA nephropathy cohort. Kidney Int. Rep. 2021, 6, 414–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woolf, S.F.; Harris, R. The harms of screening: New attention to an old concern. JAMA 2012, 307, 565–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- De Ridder, D.; Geenen, R.; Kuijer, R.; van Middendorp, H. Psychological adjustment to chronic disease. Lancet 2008, 372, 246–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haynes, R.B.; Sackett, D.L.; Taylor, D.W.; Gibson, S.; Johnson, A.L. Increased absenteeism from work after detection and labeling of hypertensive patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 1978, 299, 741–744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Redberg, R.; Katz, M.; Grady, D. Diagnostic tests: Another frontier for less is more: Or why talking to your patient is a safe and effective method of reassurance. Arch. Intern. Med. 2011, 171, 619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Porrini, E.; Ruggenenti, P.; Luis-Lima, S.; Carrara, F.; Jiménez, A.; de Vries, A.P.J.; Torres, A.; Gaspari, F.; Remuzzi, G. Estimated GFR: Time for a critical appraisal. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 2019, 15, 177–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Luis-Lima, S.; Gaspari, F.; Negrín-Mena, N.; Carrara, F.; Díaz-Martín, L.; Jiménez-Sosa, A.; González-Rinne, F.; Torres, A.; Porrini, E. Iohexol plasma clearance simplified by dried blood spot testing. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2018, 33, 1597–1603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Glomerular | Tubulointerstitial | Cardiovascular | Endothelial Function |
---|---|---|---|
Albumin | Cystatin C | Natriuretic peptids | ADMA |
Immunoglobulin G | KIM-1 | Cardiac troponin T | Fetuin A |
Dendrin | NGAL | C-reactive protein | Uric acid |
Nephrin | NAG | Adiponectin | |
Transferrin | H-FABP | Lectin | Inflammation |
Type IV collagen | CTGF | FGF 23 | Interleukin 6 |
Fibronectin | c-Myb | Klotho | Pentraxin 3 |
Laminin | Uromodulin | Calciprotein particle | TNF-α |
Podoplanin | IL-18 | Wingless (Wnt) antagonists Inhibitors | Interleukin-1β |
Sinaptopodin | Galectin 3 | PGDF-15 | IP-10 |
Glycosaminoglycans | Vanin 1 | Paraoxonase 1 | MCP-1 |
Ceruloplasmin | Nestin | Adrenomedullin | CD 14 mononuclear cells |
L-PGDS | α1-Microglobululin | Tenascin | |
Immunoglobulin M | TIMP-1 | Oxidative stress | Interleukin 8 |
Desmin | 8oHdG | YKL-40 | |
SMAD 1 | AGEs | sCD40L | |
Podocalyxin | Pentosidine | CHIT1 | |
ADAM 10 | YKL-40 | ||
Glepp-1 | |||
α-Actinin 1 | RAAS activation | ||
VEGF | Angiotensionogen | ||
c-Myb | |||
Podocin | |||
β-Enolase |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Mizdrak, M.; Kumrić, M.; Kurir, T.T.; Božić, J. Emerging Biomarkers for Early Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease. J. Pers. Med. 2022, 12, 548. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12040548
Mizdrak M, Kumrić M, Kurir TT, Božić J. Emerging Biomarkers for Early Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2022; 12(4):548. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12040548
Chicago/Turabian StyleMizdrak, Maja, Marko Kumrić, Tina Tičinović Kurir, and Joško Božić. 2022. "Emerging Biomarkers for Early Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease" Journal of Personalized Medicine 12, no. 4: 548. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12040548