Photocatalytic Water Treatment by Titanium Dioxide: Recent Updates
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanism and Kinetics
Contaminant | Photocatalytic system | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Dyes | ||
Reactive violet 5 | UV/Anatase powder (Sigma Aldrich) | [27] |
Blue 9, Red 51& Yellow 23 | Solar/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [28] |
Methyl orange | UV/TiO2 on glass | [29] |
Methylene blue | UV/TiO2 (Merck) on volcanic ash | [30] |
Rhodamine B | UV/TiO2 bilayer | [31] |
Pesticides & herbicides | ||
Organophosphate & Phosphonoglycine | UV/TiO2 immobilized on silica gel | [32] |
Azimsulfuron | UV/TiO2 coated on glass rings | [33] |
Swep residues | Simulated sunlight/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [34] |
Pharmaceuticals & cosmetics | Electrocoagulation & UV/TiO2/H2O2 | [35] |
UV/TiO2 (Aeroxide P25) | [9,10,36] | |
TiO2/Fe3O4 & TiO2/SiO2/Fe3O4 | [37] | |
Benzylparaben | UV/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [38] |
Drugs | ||
Oxolinic acid | UV/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [39] |
Atenolol & propranolol | UV/Commercial TiO2s | [40] |
Solar/TiO2 (six commercial samples)/H2O2 | [41] | |
Ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, norfloxacin & enrofloxacin | UV/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [42] |
Simulated solar/TiO2 P25 | [43] | |
Lamivudine | UV/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [25] |
Oxytetracycline | UV/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [44] |
Others | ||
N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (Insect repellent) | UV/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [20,45] |
β-naphthol | UV/TiO2-SiO2 | [46] |
15 emerging contaminants | Solar UV/TiO2 coated on glass spheres | [47] |
Grey water | UV/TiO2 (Aeroxide P25) | [12] |
Microcystins (Cyanotoxin) | UV/TiO2 film | [48,49] |
UV/Doped TiO2 | [50] | |
UV/ Nitrogen doped TiO2 | [51] | |
Lipid vesicles & E. coli cells | UV/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [52] |
Bacterial colony | UV/TiO2 on titanium beads | [53] |
UV/TiO2-coated bio-film | [54] | |
Paper mill wastewater | Solar/TiO2 | [11] |
Endocrine disrupting compounds | UV/TiO2 (Degussa P25) | [55] |
Municipal waste water | Solar/sol-gel TiO2 & Degussa P25 | [13] |
Contaminated soil | Plasma/TiO2 ((Degussa P25) | [56] |
3. Activity Enhancement
4. Immobilization of TiO2
5. Photocatalytic Reactors
Reactor type | Experimental condition | Volume (L) | pollutant | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Compound parabolic collector pilot-plant | 0.2 g L−1/solar | 22 & 110 | Cork boiling and bleaching waste water | [112] |
Concentric parabolic concentrator pilot-plant | TiO2 coated paper (20 g m−2)/solar | 16.2 | Humic substances | [113] |
Membrane pilot system | 0.05 g L−1/UV | - | 32 pharmaceuticals | [114] |
Thin film fixed-bed reactor | TiO2 on the reactor walls/solar | - | Yellow Cibacron FN-2R | [115] |
Tubular continuous flow pilot-plant | 0.1 g L−1/solar | 7 | p-nitrophenol, naphthalene, dibenzothiophene | [116] |
Compound parabolic collector pilot-plant | 0.5 g L−1/solar | 6 | Oxytetracyclin | [44] |
6. Doping
7. Coupling with Other Treatment Technologies
Doped catalyst | Synthesis route | Pollutant | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Vanadium/TiO2 (λ > 430 nm) | sol-gel and hydrothermal | isobutanol | [122] |
Iron/TiO2 (λ > 420 nm) | co-thermal hydrolysis | methyl orange | [123] |
Rhodium/TiO2 (visible light) | impregnation | microcystin-LR | [50] |
Silver/P25 | |||
artificial solar light | photoreduction | oxalic acid | [125] |
solar irradiation | electrospinning | E. coli | [92] |
Sulfur/ TiO2 (495 nm filter) | sol-gel | 4-methoxyresorcinol, quinoline &1-(p anisyl) neopentanol | [129] |
(λ > 420 nm) | sol-gel, self-assembly | microcystin-LR | [98] |
Nitrogen/P25 (λ > 420 nm) | milling | rhodamine B | [127] |
Nitrogen/TiO2 | |||
(λ = 390 & 470 nm) | sol-gel | rhodamine 6G | [128] |
Solar and visible light | sol-gel | microcystin-LR | [51] |
Carbon/TiO2 (Artificial solar light) | high pressure heating | methylene blue | [126] |
Iodine/TiO2 (spectrum close to sunlight) | hydrothermal | phenol | [130] |
Nitrogen-Palladium co-doped TiO2 (visiblelight) | sol-gel | eosin yellow | [124] |
Carbon-nitrogen co-doped TiO2 (λ = 465, 523 & 589 nm) | solvothermal | bisphenol A | [105] |
Fluorine-nitrogen co-doped TiO2 (λ > 420 nm) | sol-gel | microcystin-LR | [96] |
8. Conclusions and Future Prospects
- A large number of individual compounds have been successfully tested for photocatalytic degradation by NTO, and researchers are now more focused on real systems, which is promising for the commercialization of the technology. Selective photocatalysis by NTO is a potential research area where researchers can find several opportunities.
- Photocatalytic degradation of pollutants by NTO is mainly triggered by ·OH radicals, along with the direct oxidation of adsorbed pollutants by surface-generated holes; however, the latter is a minor secondary degradation pathway. The kinetics of photocatalytic degradation by NTO was found to depend on catalyst loading, the extent of adsorption, and light intensity. However, several reports claim that it follows L-H reaction kinetics, especially below catalyst saturation. This is an area where more studies must be conducted in order to clarify the ambiguities in photocatalytic degradation kinetics.
- Different NTO morphologies have been synthesized and found to be effective for the photocatalytic degradation of various compounds. Surface treatment of NTO is another option for increasing catalytic activity.
- The design of photocatalytic reactors is a key area where intense research is in progress. An ideal photocatalytic reactor should be simple, energy efficient, less expensive to build and operate, and able to handle high wastewater volumes. Reactors operating with solar radiation or LEDs and reactor designs that do not require post separation of the catalyst hold great promise.
- Doping NTO with metals and non-metals was investigated to achieve absorption from the visible region by reducing the band gap of the doped catalyst. However, the practicability of applying doped NTO catalysts in photocatalytic water treatment needs reconsideration because of the low catalytic activity of the doped NTO catalysts under visible light and because of the possibility of dopant leaching.
- NTO photocatalysis in conjunction with other treatment technologies was explored by several groups. Coupling NTO photocatalysis with other technologies has great potential in large-scale water treatment, and further research is necessary.
Acknowledgments
References
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Lazar, M.A.; Varghese, S.; Nair, S.S. Photocatalytic Water Treatment by Titanium Dioxide: Recent Updates. Catalysts 2012, 2, 572-601. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal2040572
Lazar MA, Varghese S, Nair SS. Photocatalytic Water Treatment by Titanium Dioxide: Recent Updates. Catalysts. 2012; 2(4):572-601. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal2040572
Chicago/Turabian StyleLazar, Manoj A., Shaji Varghese, and Santhosh S. Nair. 2012. "Photocatalytic Water Treatment by Titanium Dioxide: Recent Updates" Catalysts 2, no. 4: 572-601. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal2040572
APA StyleLazar, M. A., Varghese, S., & Nair, S. S. (2012). Photocatalytic Water Treatment by Titanium Dioxide: Recent Updates. Catalysts, 2(4), 572-601. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal2040572