Breakfast Habits of a Representative Sample of the Spanish Child and Adolescent Population (The ENALIA Study): Association with Diet Quality
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Samples
2.3. Dietary Study
2.4. Assessment of Dietary Quality
2.5. Breakfast Quality
2.6. Handling of Misreporting
2.7. Socio–Demographic and Anthropometric Information
2.8. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Description of the Sample
3.2. Breakfast Habits
3.3. Breakfast Quality
3.4. Differences in Personal and Anthropometric Data According to the Quality of Breakfast
3.5. Dietary Quality According to the Quality of Breakfast
4. Discussion
4.1. Breakfast Habits Description
4.2. Breakfast Quality
4.3. Association between the Quality of Breakfast and Dietary Quality
4.4. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total | Boys | Girls | |
---|---|---|---|
N | 1561 | 824 | 737 |
Age (years) X ± SD | 8.0 ± 5.0 | 8.1 ± 5.0 | 7.9 ± 4.9 |
Age group. n (%) | |||
1–3 years | 406 (26) | 217 (26.3) | 189 (25.6) |
4–8 years | 416 (26.6) | 210 (25.5) | 206 (28) |
9–13 years | 468 (30) | 242 (29.4) | 226 (30.7) |
14–17 years | 271 (17.4) | 155 (18.8) | 116 (15.7) |
Anthropometric characteristics | |||
Weight (kg) X ± SD # | 33.2 ± 18.3 | 34.4 ± 19.4 | 31.9 ± 17 ** |
Height (cm) X ± SD # | 129.7 ± 30.6 | 131.3 ± 31.7 | 127.9 ± 29.2 * |
BMI (kg/m2) X ± SD # | 17.9 ± 3.1 | 18.0 ± 3.0 | 17.8 ± 3.1 |
Z–BMI # | 0.32 ± 1.22 | 0.31 ± 1.22 | 0.33 ± 1.21 |
Father’s highest educational level. n (%) | |||
Mandatory or less | 179 (11.6) | 106 (13.1) | 73 (10.0) |
Secondary | 438 (28.4) | 221 (27.3) | 217 (28.8) |
Vocational training/Bachelors | 323 (21) | 176 (21.7) | 147 (20.2) |
University | 600 (39) | 308 (38.0) | 292 (40.1) |
Mother’s highest educational level. n (%) | |||
Mandatory or less | 121 (7.8) | 72 (8.8) | 49 (6.7) |
Secondary | 377 (24.2) | 192 (23.4) | 185 (25.2) |
Vocational training/Bachelors | 319 (20.5) | 167 (20.3) | 152 (20.7) |
University | 739 (47.5) | 390 (47.5) | 349 (47.5) |
Energy usual intake (EI) (kcal/day) # | |||
1–3 years | 1451 ± 202 | 1497 ± 210.8 | 1398 ± 177.6 ** |
4–8 years | 1780 ± 214.5 | 1880 ± 214.6 | 1679 ± 159.9 ** |
9–13 years | 2024 ± 258.7 | 2137 ± 229.3 | 1903 ± 232.5 ** |
14–17 years | 2199 ± 440.2 | 2412 ± 415.5 | 1915 ± 285.4 ** |
EI/BMR # | |||
1–3 years | 2.05 ± 0.37 | 2.04 ± 0.37 | 2.07 ± 0.37 |
4–8 years | 1.75 ± 0.25 | 1.77 ± 0.25 | 1.72 ± 0.25 |
9–13 years | 1.53 ± 0.26 | 1.53 ± 0.25 | 1.52 ± 0.26 |
14–17 years | 1.37 ± 0.25 | 1.38 ± 0.27 | 1.35 ± 0.23 |
1–3 Years | 4–8 Years | 9–13 Years | 14–17 Years | p-Value † | 14–17 Years | p-Value $ | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boys | Girls | ||||||||
N | 406 | 416 | 468 | 271 | 155 | 116 | |||
Dairy | X ± SD | 142.8 ± 121.2 a | 201.8 ± 74.2 b | 197.9 ± 83.2 b | 191.1 ± 95.0 b | <0.001 | 206.0 ± 93.5 | 172.7 ± 94.0 | 0.010 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 151.4 (0.0–305.0) | 216.1 (5.0–294.8) | 207.0 (0.0–320.0) | 204.8 (0.0–340.3) | 212.1 (0.0–351.3) | 200.8 (0.0–302.0) | |||
Cereals | X ± SD | 15.6 ± 30.7 a | 18.4 ± 26.8 a | 23.1 ± 29.5 b | 20.4 ± 33.5 a,b | <0.001 | 19.8 ± 25.7 | 21.3 ± 41.1 | 0.902 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 5.8 (0.0–50.3) | 11.8 (0.0–56.4) | 16.9 (0.0–71.9) | 10.5 (0.0–72.3) | 11.8 (0.0–72.6) | 9.8 (0.0–71.6) | |||
Fruits | X ± SD | 6.7 ± 37.0 a | 9.3 ± 40.8 a | 19.8 ± 80.3 b | 28.1 ± 83.3 b | <0.001 | 24.9 ± 79.8 | 32.0 ± 87.4 | 0.454 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–40.1) | 0.0 (0.0–72.6) | 0.0 (0.0–126.0) | 0.0 (0.0–148.6) | 0.0 (0.0–148.6) | 0.0 (0.0–175.3) | |||
Protein foods | X ± SD | 0.7 ± 3.8 a | 1.8 ± 7.9 a,b | 2.2 ± 7.1 b | 3.2 ± 14.3 b | 0.001 | 3.8 ± 17.9 | 2.4 ± 8.0 | 0.86 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–3.2) | 0.0 (0.0–12.2) | 0.0 (0.0–16.5) | 0.0 (0.0–23.0) | 0.0 (0.0–25.4) | 0.0 (0.0–19.5) | |||
Added Products | X ± SD | 3.1 ± 5.6 a | 6.8 ± 8.4 b | 7.2 ± 9.8 b | 7.5 ± 7.3 b | <0.001 | 7.0 ± 6.7 | 8.1 ± 8.0 | 0.398 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–13.8) | 5.4 (0.0–19.6) | 5.1 (0.0–19.1) | 6.3 (0.0–22.3) | 6.2 (0.0–21.3) | 6.3 (0.0–26.8) | |||
Fats and oils | X ± SD | 0.5 ± 1.9 a | 1.8 ± 3.6 b | 2.0 ± 3.9 b | 1.7 ± 3.7 b | <0.001 | 1.8 ± 3.6 | 1.6 ± 4.0 | 0.485 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–4.3) | 0.0 (0.0–9.8) | 0.0 (0.0–9.8) | 0.0 (0.0–9.1) | 0.0 (0.0–9.2) | 0.0 (0.0–8.7) | |||
Baby foods | X ± SD | 69.4 ± 106.5 a | 4.8 ± 31.6 b | 0.7 ± 10.3 b | 0.5 ± 6.9 b | <0.001 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 1.2 ± 10.3 | 0.044 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 9.7 (0.0–290.3) | 0.0 (0.0–4.4) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | |||
Bakery | X ± SD | 13.5 ± 28.5 a | 21.9 ± 33.8 b | 21.1 ± 31.6 b | 21.7 ± 30.5 b | <0.001 | 20.0 ± 25.7 | 23.8 ± 35.5 | 0.774 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–61.2) | 9.3 (0.0–87.0) | 9.2 (0.0–77.3) | 10.5 (0.0–76.3) | 10.2 (0.0–72.1) | 10.6 (0.0–98.3) | |||
Juices | X ± SD | 8.2 ± 31.7 a | 15.6 ± 42.8 a | 23.5 ± 52.9 b | 27.0 ± 52.8 b | <0.001 | 26.8 ± 52.9 | 27.2 ± 52.7 | 0.685 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–64.0) | 0.0 (0.0–104.3) | 0.0 (0.0–140.8) | 0.0 (0.0–154.2) | 0.0 (0.0–176.3) | 0.0 (0.0–151.9) | |||
Other foods | X ± SD | 0.6 ± 2.9 a | 0.6 ± 2.9 a,b | 0.9 ± 3.6 b | 1.2 ± 4.7 b | 0.001 | 1.5 ± 5.5 | 0.8 ± 3.5 | 0.908 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–4.6) | 0.0 (0.0–4.3) | 0.0 (0.0–8.5) | 0.0 (0.0–9.0) | 0.0 (0.0–10.9) | 0.0 (0.0–3.0) |
Total Sample | 1–3 Years | 4–8 Years | 9–13 Years | 14–17 Years | p-Value † | 14–17 Years | p-Value † | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boys | Girls | ||||||||
N | 1561 | 406 | 416 | 468 | 271 | 155 | 116 | ||
BQI Item, n (%) | |||||||||
Cereals and derivate consumption | 1094 (62.3) | 103 (55.5) a | 92 (61.2) b,c | 409 (69.4) b | 195 (58.1) a,c | <0.001 | 103 (55.5) | 92 (61.2) | 0.296 |
Fruits and/or vegetables consumption | 274 (15.6) | 39 (21.3) a | 36 (24.1) a | 109 (18.5) b | 76 (22.6) c | <0.001 | 39 (21.3) | 36 (24.1) | 0.541 |
Dairy products consumption | 1573 (89.6) | 172 (92.9) a | 132 (87.9) b | 559 (95) b,c | 304 (90.7) c | <0.001 | 172 (92.9) | 132 (87.9) | 0.118 |
Food rich in simple sugars (<5%E) | 702 (40.0) | 42 (22.6) a | 49 (32.8) b | 201 (34.1) c | 91 (27.1) c | <0.001 | 42 (22.6) | 49 (32.8) | 0.041 |
Include MUFA–rich fats | 243 (13.8) | 26 (14.2) a | 17 (11.2) b | 100 (17) b | 43 (12.9) a,b | <0.001 | 26 (14.2) | 17 (11.2) | 0.459 |
MUFA/SFA ratio (≥2:1) | 19 (1.1) | 4 (1.9) a | 3 (1.7) a | 6 (1.1) a | 6 (1.8) a | 0.531 | 4 (1.9) | 3 (1.7) | 0.911 |
Energy intake from breakfast (20–25%E) | 287 (16.3) | 31 (16.8) a | 34 (22.4) a | 112 (19) a | 65 (19.3) a | <0.001 | 31 (16.8) | 34 (22.4) | <0.001 |
Fruits. cereals and dairy product in the breakfast | 148 (8.4) | 21 (11.6) a | 19 (12.9) a,b | 62 (10.5) b,c | 41 (12.2) c | <0.001 | 21 (11.6) | 19 (12.9) | 0.726 |
Calcium (>20% RDA) | 1484 (84.5) | 155 (83.9) a | 109 (72.4) a | 463 (78.7) b | 264 (78.7) b | <0.001 | 155 (83.9) | 109 (72.4) | 0.013 |
Absence of butter or margarine | 1701 (96.9) | 174 (94.2) a | 145 (96.6) a,b | 566 (96.2) b | 319 (95.3) b,c | <0.001 | 174 (94.2) | 145 (96.6) | 0.265 |
Breakfast quality BQI score (0–10), X ± SD | 4.29 ± 1.26 | 4.03 ± 1.18 a | 4.37 ± 1.2 b | 4.39 ± 1.33 b | 4.19 ± 1.27 a,b | <0.001 | 4.15 ± 1.28 | 4.23 ± 1.27 | 0.547 |
WQB (BQI < P66) | GQB (BQI ≥ P66) | p-Value † | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | 781 | 780 | ||
Dairy | X ± SD | 178.6 ± 97.7 | 200.0 ± 85.3 | <0.001 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 203.5 (0.0–316.3) | 214.4 (0.0–312.6) | ||
Cereals | X ± SD | 14.4 ± 33.0 | 26.1 ± 24.5 | <0.001 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–59.4) | 21.5 (0.0–71.6) | ||
Fruits | X ± SD | 7.1 ± 36.4 | 25.8 ± 85.9 | <0.001 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–54.9) | 0.0 (0.0–138.3) | ||
Protein foods | X ± SD | 1.1 ± 5.8 | 3.1 ± 11.2 | <0.001 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–19.7) | ||
Added Products | X ± SD | 7.3 ± 9.7 | 5.4 ± 6.7 | <0.001 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 5.5 (0.0–21.3) | 4.1 (0.0–15.9) | ||
Fats and oils | X ± SD | 1.2 ± 3.6 | 2.1 ± 3.5 | <0.001 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–9.2) | 0.0 (0.0–9.2) | ||
Baby foods | X ± SD | 15.2 ± 61.7 | 11.0 ± 41.9 | 0.011 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–118.6) | 0.0 (0.0–88.5) | ||
Bakery | X ± SD | 26.7 ± 35.2 | 13.1 ± 25.5 | <0.001 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 15.5 (0.0–92.9) | 0.0 (0.0–56.3) | ||
Juices | X ± SD | 21.4 ± 50.8 | 16.8 ± 43.1 | 0.039 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–147.9) | 0.0 (0.0–102.7) | ||
Other foods | X ± SD | 0.7 ± 3.2 | 0.9 ± 3.9 | <0.001 |
P50 (P5–P95) | 0.0 (0.0–6.6) | 0.0 (0.0–4.4) |
WQB (BQI < P66) | GQB (BQI ≥ P66) | p Value † | |
N | 781 | 780 | |
BQI Item, n (%) | |||
Cereals and derivate consumption | 381 (41.2) | 713 (85.7) | <0.001 |
Fruits and/or vegetables consumption | 55 (5.9) | 219 (26.3) | <0.001 |
Dairy products consumption | 791 (85.7) | 782 (93.9) | <0.001 |
Food rich in simple sugars (<5%E) | 261 (28.3) | 441 (53) | <0.001 |
Include MUFA–rich fats | 11 (1.2) | 232 (27.8) | <0.001 |
MUFA/SFA ratio (≥2:1) | 0 (0) | 19 (2.3) | <0.001 |
Energy intake from breakfast (20–25%E) | 71 (7.7) | 216 (25.9) | <0.001 |
Fruits, cereals and dairy product in the breakfast | 0 (0) | 148 (17.8) | <0.001 |
Calcium (>20% RDA) | 711 (77) | 773 (92.9) | <0.001 |
Absence of butter or margarine | 877 (95) | 824 (99) | <0.001 |
Breakfast quality BQI score (0–10), X ± SD | 3.42 ± 0.68 | 5.25 ± 1.05 | <0.001 |
Total Sample | WQB BQI < P66 (<4) | GQB BQI ≥ P66 (≥4) | p-Value † | |
---|---|---|---|---|
N | 1561 | 781 | 780 | |
Sex, n (%) | 0.032 | |||
Male | 903 (51.4) | 452 (49) | 450 (54.1) | |
Female | 853 (48.6) | 471 (51) | 382 (45.9) | |
Age group. n (%) | <0.001 | |||
1–3 years | 289 (16.4) | 88 (9.6) | 200 (24) | |
4–8 years | 543 (30.9) | 320 (34.6) | 223 (26.8) | |
9–13 years | 589 (33.5) | 361 (39.1) | 228 (27.4) | |
14–17 years | 335 (19.1) | 154 (16.7) | 181 (21.7) | |
Community size. n (%) | 0.702 | |||
<10,000 | 341 (19.4) | 189 (20.5) | 152 (18.3) | |
10,000–100,000 | 728 (41.5) | 380 (41.2) | 348 (41.8) | |
100,000–500,000 | 429 (24.4) | 221 (23.9) | 208 (25) | |
>500,000 | 257 (14.7) | 133 (14.4) | 124 (14.9) | |
Father’s highest educational level. n (%) | <0.001 | |||
Mandatory or less | 210 (12.1) | 137 (15) | 74 (9) | |
Secondary | 497 (28.7) | 265 (29.2) | 232 (28.2) | |
FP superior/Bachelors | 361 (20.9) | 191 (21.1) | 170 (20.6) | |
University | 663 (38.3) | 314 (34.7) | 348 (42.3) | |
Mother’s highest educational level. n (%) | 0.003 | |||
Mandatory or less | 146 (8.4) | 91 (9.9) | 55 (6.6) | |
Secondary | 434 (24.8) | 239 (26) | 195 (23.4) | |
Vocational training/Bachelors | 358 (20.4) | 196 (21.4) | 161 (19.4) | |
University | 812 (46.4) | 391 (42.6) | 421 (50.6) | |
Sedentary free time. n (%) | ||||
≥1 h using computer on weekdays | 437 (29.9) | 253 (31.3) | 184 (28.3) | 0.205 |
≥1 h using computer on weekend | 898 (61.5) | 521 (64.4) | 377 (57.8) | 0.009 |
≥2 h using TV on weekdays | 365 (25.0) | 210 (26.0) | 154 (23.7) | 0.298 |
≥2 h using TV on weekend | 1034 (70.8) | 579 (71.6) | 455 (69.8) | 0.434 |
Anthropometric characteristics. X ± SD | ||||
Weight (kg) # | 35.6 ± 17.6 | 35.9 ± 16.1 | 35.4 ± 19.1 | 0.018 $ |
Height (cm) # | 134.8 ± 27.8 | 136.3 ± 24.7 | 133.1 ± 30.8 | 0.013 $ |
BMI (kg/m2) # | 18.1 ± 3.1 | 18.1 ± 3.1 | 18.1 ± 3.1 | 0.233 $ |
Z–BMI/Age # | 0.3 ± 1.2 | 0.3 ± 1.2 | 0.4 ± 1.2 | 0.091 $ |
Weight status by WHO. n (%) | 0.474 | |||
Underweight | 32 (1.9) | 17 (2) | 15 (1.9) | |
Normal | 1158 (69.8) | 608 (69.7) | 551 (69.8) | |
Overweight | 344 (20.7) | 188 (21.6) | 156 (19.8) | |
Obese | 126 (7.6) | 58 (6.7) | 67 (8.5) | |
Energy intake (kcal/day) # | ||||
1–3 years | 1468 ± 209 | 1467 ± 204 | 1469 ± 211 | 0.776 |
4–8 years | 1779 ± 214 | 1780 ± 218 | 1778 ± 209 | 0.815 |
9–13 years | 2020 ± 258 | 2023 ± 259 | 2014 ± 257 | 0.856 |
14–17 years | 2189 ± 439 | 2087 ± 382 | 2276 ± 465 | <0.001 |
EI/BMR # | ||||
1–3 years | 2.02 ± 0.37 | 2.03 ± 0.37 | 2.01 ± 0.38 | 0.302 |
4–8 years | 1.75 ± 0.25 | 1.76 ± 0.24 | 1.72 ± 0.26 | 0.079 |
9–13 years | 1.53 ± 0.26 | 1.54 ± 0.25 | 1.5 ± 0.27 | 0.082 |
14–17 years | 1.37 ± 0.25 | 1.35 ± 0.23 | 1.38 ± 0.27 | 0.372 |
Boys | Girls | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Worse Quality Breakfast (WQB) | Good Quality Breakfast (GQB) | p Value † | Worse Quality Breakfast (WQB) | Good Quality Breakfast (GQB) | p Value † | |||||
Mean ± SD | Median (P5–P95) | Mean ± SD | Median (P5–P95) | Mean ± SD | Median (P5–P95) | Mean ± SD | Median (P5–P95) | |||
Energy (KJ/day) # | 8.437 ± 1.417 | 8.492 (6.142–10.696) | 8.390 ± 1.883 | 8.212 (5.547–11.667) | 0.010 | 7.452 ± 1.105 | 7.418 (5.680–9.331) | 7.217 ± 1.249 | 7.114 (5.266–9.435) | <0.001 |
Energy (kcal/day) # | 2.017 ± 339 | 2.030 (1.468–2.556) | 2.005 ± 450 | 1.963 (1.326–2.788) | 0.010 | 1.781 ± 264 | 1.773 (1.358–2.230) | 1.725 ± 299 | 1.700 (1.259–2.255) | <0.001 |
Protein g/day# | 76.1 ± 7.9 | 75.1 (65.2–88.9) | 77.2 ± 8.1 | 77.1 (64.1–92.0) | 0.028 | 75.5 ± 8.1 | 74.9 (62.5–90.0) | 77.1 ± 8.0 | 76.1 (65.3–92.4) | 0.005 |
Protein (%E) # | 16.8 ± 1.7 | 16.6 (14.3–19.7) | 17.0 ± 1.8 | 17.0 (14.2–20.3) | 0.017 | 16.7 ± 1.8 | 16.6 (13.9–19.9) | 17.1 ± 1.8 | 16.8 (14.6–20.7) | 0.002 |
Carbohydrates, total (g/day) | 212.7 ± 15.4 | 212.4 (188.6–238.7) | 212.0 ± 18.7 | 211.6 (180.6–241.9) | 0.546 | 210.8 ± 17.2 | 211.8 (179.8–238.8) | 211.1 ± 15.8 | 210.3 (185.7–237.0) | 0.799 |
Carbohydrates, total (%E) | 46.9 ± 3.4 | 46.9 (41.7–52.6) | 46.8 ± 4.1 | 46.6 (40.0–53.3) | 0.573 | 46.6 ± 3.8 | 46.8 (39.8–52.8) | 46.7 ± 3.5 | 46.4 (41.1–52.4) | 0.736 |
Total sugars (g/day) | 100.4 ± 16.9 | 100.2 (69.9–128.3) | 97.9 ± 16.1 | 97.5 (71.1–124.6) | 0.022 | 92.7 ± 16.8 | 92.6 (65.4–122.2) | 93.3 ± 14.9 | 93.3 (68.1–116.9) | 0.598 |
Total sugars (%E) | 21.5 ± 3.9 | 21.5 (14.9–28.0) | 21.2 ± 4.0 | 21.2 (14.9–27.8) | 0.155 | 20.8 ± 4.0 | 20.7 (14.2–27.3) | 21.2 ± 3.7 | 21.2 (15.4–27.2) | 0.115 |
Fat, total (g/day) # | 69.2 ± 6.4 | 69.7 (58.0–79.0) | 69.0 ± 6.8 | 69.1 (57.3–81.1) | 0.726 | 70.0 ± 6.5 | 69.7 (59.8–80.2) | 68.7 ± 6.7 | 69.1 (56.2–78.7) | 0.057 |
Fat, total (%E) # | 34.6 ± 3.2 | 34.8 (29.0–39.4) | 34.5 ± 3.4 | 34.5 (28.7–40.6) | 0.670 | 34.9 ± 3.2 | 34.8 (29.7–40.1) | 34.3 ± 3.3 | 34.5 (28.1–39.3) | 0.046 |
SFA (g/day) # | 24.5 ± 3.8 | 24.8 (18.0–30.3) | 24.5 ± 4.3 | 24.4 (17.8–32.1) | 0.464 | 25.1 ± 4.0 | 25.3 (18.3–31.0) | 24.9 ± 4.8 | 24.7 (18.0–33.1) | 0.863 |
MUFA (g/day) # | 25.8 ± 4.0 | 26.0 (19.0–31.9) | 25.9 ± 4.2 | 25.7 (19.2–33.1) | 0.738 | 27.4 ± 3.8 | 27.6 (21.1–32.8) | 27.0 ± 4.2 | 27.6 (20.1–32.8) | 0.200 |
PUFA (g/day) # | 10.4 ± 1.5 | 10.2 (8.1–13.3) | 10.2 ± 1.6 | 10.1 (7.8–12.8) | 0.049 | 10.4 ± 1.8 | 10.2 (7.9–13.9) | 10.3 ± 1.7 | 10.1 (7.8–13.1) | 0.378 |
Fiber (g/day) # | 15.5 ± 3.2 | 15.1 (11.3–20.0) | 15.7 ± 3.0 | 15.4 (11.4–20.8) | 0.423 | 16.5 ± 4.0 | 16.0 (11.1–22.1) | 17.0 ± 3.7 | 16.6 (11.4–23.3) | 0.148 |
Vitamin A (μg/day) # | 844.7 ± 273.0 | 801.7 (482.6–1.273.6) | 913.4 ± 278.0 | 876.1 (529.5–1.338.4) | <0.001 | 853.4 ± 307.2 | 805.9 (470.6–1.414.2) | 893.8 ± 270.2 | 850.6 (514.5–1.386.6) | 0.004 |
Vitamin D (μg/day) # | 2.51 ± 1.12 | 2.31 (1.17–4.57) | 2.89 ± 1.11 | 2.76 (1.36–4.90) | <0.001 | 2.42 ± 1.33 | 2.07 (0.94–4.72) | 2.61 ± 1.20 | 2.43 (1.01–4.88) | 0.001 |
Vitamin E (mg α–TE/day) # | 8.7 ± 2.3 | 8.5 (5.6–12.8) | 9.0 ± 2.3 | 8.8 (5.8–13.2) | 0.238 | 8.9 ± 2.3 | 8.4 (6.0–12.7) | 9.0 ± 2.1 | 8.8 (6.0–12.9) | 0.332 |
Thiamin (mg/day) # | 1.20 ± 0.18 | 1.18 (0.94–1.51) | 1.27 ± 0.24 | 1.23 (0.96–1.73) | <0.001 | 1.18 ± 0.20 | 1.15 (0.90–1.56) | 1.24 ± 0.21 | 1.21 (0.95–1.61) | 0.001 |
Riboflavin (mg/day) # | 1.71 ± 0.27 | 1.73 (1.24–2.16) | 1.83 ± 0.33 | 1.79 (1.35–2.46) | <0.001 | 1.65 ± 0.31 | 1.63 (1.19–2.18) | 1.77 ± 0.33 | 1.75 (1.32–2.38) | <0.001 |
Niacin (mg Eq. Niacin/day) # | 29.1 ± 4.0 | 28.5 (23.3–36.0) | 29.8 ± 4.3 | 29.5 (23.5–38.4) | 0.033 | 28.7 ± 4.3 | 28.3 (22.4–36.9) | 29.7 ± 4.2 | 29.3 (23.9–37.8) | 0.002 |
Vitamin B6 (mg/day) # | 1.81 ± 0.29 | 1.78 (1.35–2.30) | 1.90 ± 0.34 | 1.87 (1.40–2.54) | 0.004 | 1.76 ± 0.36 | 1.71 (1.24–2.43) | 1.90 ± 0.38 | 1.88 (1.35–2.62) | <0.001 |
Vitamin B12 (μg/day) # | 4.3 ± 1.0 | 4.2 (3.0–6.0) | 4.3 ± 0.9 | 4.2 (3.1–5.9) | 0.259 | 4.5 ± 1.4 | 4.2 (2.7–6.6) | 4.5 ± 1.1 | 4.4 (2.8–6.3) | 0.135 |
Folate (μg DFE b/day) # | 222.7 ± 44.5 | 216.8 (160.7–305.3) | 236.4 ± 48.7 | 229.3 (170.5–325.4) | 0.001 | 230.1 ± 48.8 | 224.2 (160.0–317.6) | 244.7 ± 51.4 | 242.2 (168.1–333.7) | 0.003 |
Vitamin C (mg/day) # | 98.1 ± 39.2 | 91.3 (46.9–167.9) | 104.2 ± 37.8 | 98.3 (53.3–171.7) | 0.047 | 96.5 ± 37.2 | 91.0 (47.2–163.5) | 108.9 ± 40.4 | 103.4 (54.2–184.1) | 0.001 |
Calcium (mg/day) # | 935 ± 168 | 935 (652–1.208) | 989 ± 171 | 975 (740–1.289) | <0.001 | 914 ± 152 | 924 (664–1.164) | 955 ± 152 | 945 (711–1.214) | <0.001 |
Iron (mg/day) # | 11.2 ± 1.8 | 10.9 (9.1–14.7) | 11.6 ± 2.0 | 11.4 (8.9–15.6) | 0.88 | 11.3 ± 1.9 | 11.0 (8.9–15.1) | 11.6 ± 2.1 | 11.4 (8.8–15.9) | 0.124 |
Potassium (mg/day) | 2.568 ± 296 | 2.589 (2.054–3.056) | 2.638 ± 343 | 2.616 (2.103–3.237) | 0.001 | 2.494 ± 350 | 2.460 (1.954–3.080) | 2.611 ± 333 | 2.590 (2.077–3.171) | <0.001 |
Sodium (mg/day) # | 1.617 ± 319 | 1.572 (1.179–2.200) | 1.650 ± 295 | 1.631 (1.246–2.181) | 0.051 | 1.704 ± 284 | 1.696 (1.265–2.185) | 1.722 ± 282 | 1.707 (1.301–2.204) | 0.814 |
Zinc (mg/day) # | 8.7 ± 1.0 | 8.6 (7.3–10.6) | 8.8 ± 1.0 | 8.7 (7.2–10.5) | 0.243 | 8.5 ± 1.1 | 8.3 (6.9–10.4) | 8.6 ± 1.1 | 8.4 (7.1–10.8) | 0.328 |
Magnesium (mg/day) # | 236.1 ± 26.3 | 233.3 (194.2–282.3) | 241.8 ± 30.9 | 238.8 (198.1–295.5) | 0.021 | 238.7 ± 26.1 | 238.0 (196.7–282.1) | 247.2 ± 26.4 | 245.6 (206.7–290.5) | <0.001 |
Selenium (μg/day) # | 86.1 ± 15.4 | 85.5 (62.4–112.1) | 87.2 ± 15.5 | 86.6 (63.8–114.6) | 0.409 | 90.1 ± 15.8 | 88.8 (67.6–117.0) | 91.8 ± 17.2 | 91.2 (66.3–118.6) | 0.199 |
Iodine (μg/day) # | 91.2 ± 15.0 | 89.7 (68.8–118.9) | 92.2 ± 15.2 | 90.7 (68,7–118.1) | 0.189 | 86.4 ± 14.2 | 85.2 (66.4–110.2) | 90.0 ± 15.3 | 87.7 (67.7–117.0) | 0.001 |
Nutrient Rich subscore # | 768.9 ± 53.4 | 787.9 (668.2–823.3) | 775.8 ± 51.7 | 796.6 (665,5–829,6) | 0.001 | 768.7 ± 54.7 | 790.3 (665.2–827.4) | 786,8 ± 44.2 | 807.1 (683.0–827.5) | <0.001 |
Limiting subscore # | 284.0 ± 16.5 | 288.1 (253.1–300.0) | 282.9 ± 17.7 | 287.3 (249.3–300.0) | 0.773 | 284.1 ± 17.5 | 287.9 (247.4–300.0) | 282.3 ± 19.0 | 285.7 (246.7–300.0) | 0.255 |
NRF 9.3 score # | 484.9 ± 52.8 | 499.1 (383.5–549.8) | 492.9 ± 51.8 | 508.4 (388.0–559.9) | 0.001 | 484.5 ± 56.4 | 499.2 (378.9–560.7) | 504.4 ± 46.8 | 513.5 (407.1–568.2) | <0.001 |
Boys | Girls | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Worse Quality Breakfast (WQB) | Good Quality Breakfast (GQB) | p Value † | Worse Quality Breakfast (WQB) | Good Quality Breakfast (GQB) | p Value † | |||||||||
<EAR, n (%) | <AMDR | >AMDR | <EAR, n (%) | <AMDR | >AMDR | <EAR, n (%) | <AMDR | >AMDR | <EAR, n (%) | <AMDR | >AMDR | |||
[% > UL] | [% > UL] | [% > UL] | [% > UL] | |||||||||||
Carbohydrates, total (g/day) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | – | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | – | ||||||||
Protein (g/day) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | – | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | – | ||||||||
Carbohydrates, total (%E) | 395 (100) | 0 (0) | 429 (100) | 0 (0) | – | 385 (99.7) | 0 (0) | 351 (100.0) | 0 (0) | 0.340 | ||||
Protein (%E) | 0 (0) | 3 (0.8) | 0 (0) | 8 (1.9) | 0.167 | 0 (0) | 4 (1.0) | 0 (0) | 18 (5.1) | 0.001 | ||||
Fat, total (%E) | 0 (0.0) | 159 (40.3) | 0 (0) | 128 (20.8) | 0.002 | 0 (0.0) | 160 (41.5) | 0 (0.0) | 102 (29.1) | <0.001 | ||||
Vitamin A (μg/day) | 11 (2.8) | 9 (2.1) | 0.522 | 9 (2.3) | 8 (2.3) | 0.962 | ||||||||
Vitamin D (μg/day) | 395 (100) [0.0] | 429 (100) [0.0] | – | 384 (99.5) [0.0] | 351 (100) [0.0] | 0.177 | ||||||||
Vitamin E (mg α–TE/day) | 122 (30.9) [0.0] | 127 (29.6) [0.0] | 0.689 | 155 (40.2) [0.0] | 99 (28.2) [0.0] | 0.001 | ||||||||
Thiamin (mg/day) | 0 (0) | 2 (0.5) | 0.174 | 4 (1) | 2 (0.6) | 0.175 | 0.47 | 0.482 | ||||||
Riboflavin (mg/day) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | – | 2 (0.5) | 0 (0) | 0.176 | 0.177 | |||||||
Niacin (mg Eq. Niacin/day) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | – | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | – | ||||||||
Vitamin B6 (mg/day) | 0 (0) [0.0] | 0 (0) [0.0] | – | 0 (0) [0.0] | 1 (0.3) [0.0] | 0.294 | ||||||||
Vitamin B12 (μg/day) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | – | 1 (0.3) | 0 (0) | 0.340 | ||||||||
Folate (μg DFE/day) | 136 (34.4) [1.3] | 109 (25.4) [1.4] | 0.005 | 213 (55.2) [0.0] | 204 (58.1) [0.0] | <0.001 | ||||||||
Vitamin C (mg/day) | 6 (1.5) [0.0] | 5 (1.2) [0.0] | 0.659 | 4 (1) [0.0] | 2 (0.6) [0.0] | 0.482 | ||||||||
Calcium (mg/day) | 157 (39.7) [0.0] | 119 (27.7) [0.0] | <0.001 | 204 (52.8) [0.0] | 130 (37.0) [0.0] | <0.001 | ||||||||
Iron (mg/day) | 0 (0) [0.0] | 0 (0) [0.0] | – | 0 (0) [0.0] | 2 (0.6) [0.0] | 0.138 | ||||||||
Potassium (mg/day) ‡ | 393 (99.5) | 421 (98.1) | 0.075 | 384 (99.5) | 347 (98.9) | 0.348 | ||||||||
Sodium (mg/day) ‡ | 45 (11.4) | 46 (10.7) | 0.759 | 64 (16.6) | 55 (15.7) | 0.737 | ||||||||
Zinc (mg/day) | 2 (0.5) [12.2] | 2 (0.5) [23.8] | 0.934 | 19 (4.9) [9.6] | 6 (1.7) [18.8] | 0.016 | ||||||||
Magnesium (mg/day) | 40 (10.1) | 63 (14.7) | 0.048 | 68 (17.6) | 35 (10) | 0.003 | ||||||||
Selenium (μg/day) | 0 (0) [0.3] | 0 (0) [1.6] | 0 (0) [1.0] | 0 (0) [2.3] | – | |||||||||
Iodine (μg/day) | 41 (10.4) [0.0] | 51 (11.9) [0.0] | 0.492 | 96 (24.9) [0.0] | 58 (16.5) [0.0] | 0.005 |
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Cuadrado-Soto, E.; López-Sobaler, A.M.; Jiménez-Ortega, A.I.; Bermejo, L.M.; Aparicio, A.; Ortega, R.M. Breakfast Habits of a Representative Sample of the Spanish Child and Adolescent Population (The ENALIA Study): Association with Diet Quality. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3772. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123772
Cuadrado-Soto E, López-Sobaler AM, Jiménez-Ortega AI, Bermejo LM, Aparicio A, Ortega RM. Breakfast Habits of a Representative Sample of the Spanish Child and Adolescent Population (The ENALIA Study): Association with Diet Quality. Nutrients. 2020; 12(12):3772. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123772
Chicago/Turabian StyleCuadrado-Soto, Esther, Ana M. López-Sobaler, Ana Isabel Jiménez-Ortega, Laura M. Bermejo, Aránzazu Aparicio, and Rosa M. Ortega. 2020. "Breakfast Habits of a Representative Sample of the Spanish Child and Adolescent Population (The ENALIA Study): Association with Diet Quality" Nutrients 12, no. 12: 3772. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123772