Gut Microbiota, Probiotics and Physical Performance in Athletes and Physically Active Individuals
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Gut Microbiota and Physical Performance
2.1. Gut Microbiota in Athletes
Subjects | Training Regimen, Exercise Protocol | Dietary Intake | Main Results | Reference |
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Athletes: | ||||
Rugby players vs. BMI-matched sedentary controls n = 86, males Age 29 ± 4 y | Habitual training and exercise | Self-reported intake by FFQ In athletes, higher total energy, macronutrient and fiber intake. Protein intake 22 E% in athletes, 16 E% in low-BMI and 15 E% in high-BMI controls | In athletes, higher α-diversity and Akkermansia spp. abundance vs. sedentary controls. Protein intake was positively correlated with microbial diversity. | [12] |
Rugby players vs. BMI-matched sedentary controls n = 86, males Age 29 ± 4 y | Habitual training and exercise | Self-reported intake by FFQ In athletes, higher total energy, macronutrient and fiber intake. Protein 22 E% in athletes vs. 16 E% in low-BMI and 15 E% in high-BMI controls | In athletes, fecal SCFAs, microbial pathways for antibiotic biosynthesis, and amino acids and carbohydrate metabolism were increased. | [30] |
Professional cyclists vs. amateur cyclists n = 33 (22/M, 11/F) Age 19–49 y | Habitual training | Dietary intake data collected by questionnaire, reported and analyzed as overall dietary patterns. | Prevotella spp. abundance was positively correlated with the amount of exercise and branched chain amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism pathways. Professional cyclists had increased Methanobrevibacter smithii transcripts and upregulated genes involved in the production of methane compared with amateur cyclists. No correlations between overall diet and gut microbiota clusters. | [13] |
Cross-country runners n = 18, males Age: Control group 35.4 ± 9.0 y Protein group 34.9 ± 9.5 y | Habitual endurance training | Habitual diet by FFQ No differences in habitual dietary intake within or between groups, at baseline or after the intervention. Dietary intervention: habitual diet and whey isolate (10 g) + beef hydrolysate (10 g) or maltodextrin (control) for 10 weeks | After the intervention, higher Bacteroidetes and lower Firmicutes abundance in the protein group. Bifidobacterium longum was reduced after intervention in the protein group. No changes in microbiota composition in the control group, from pre- to post-intervention. No differences within or between groups in fecal SCFA, before or after the intervention. | [32] |
Bodybuilders, long-distance runners vs. sedentary subjects n = 45, males Age: Bodybuilders 25 ± 3 y, distance runners 20 ± 1 y, sedentary 26 ± 2 y | Habitual training and exercise | Self-recorded 3-day food diary Bodybuilders had a high-protein and distance runners had a low-dietary-fiber dietary pattern. Dietary fiber intake was below recommendation in all groups. | Compositional differences in bodybuilders and runners associated with exercise type and diet. No difference in microbial diversity between groups. In distance runners, protein intake was negatively correlated with microbial diversity. | [33] |
Highly trained ultra-endurance rowers n = 4, males Age 26.5 ± 1.3 y | ca. 5000 km rowing race over 34 days | Self-reported intake (FFQ), detailed daily record pre-race and during the race No fresh produce consumed during race. Pre-race fiber intake: 21.45 g/day, intra-race 23.1 g/day. Only small changes in intra-race macronutrient intake compared with pre-race | After the race, increased diversity and butyrate-producing species including Roseburia hominis and changes in microbial composition were observed. | [34] |
Elite race walkers n = 21, males Age 20–35 y | 3-week structured program of intensified training | Dietary intervention for 3 weeks with planned and individualized menus. Subjects allocated into High-carbohydrate diet (HCHO) Periodized-carbohydrate diet (PCHO), or Low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet (LCHF) (ketogenic) group | At baseline, microbiota profiles could be separated into Prevotella- or Bacteroides-dominating enterotypes. HCHO and PCHO resulted in minor changes, whereas LCHF resulted in stronger changes in microbial composition. LCHF was associated with reduced Faecalibacterium, Bifidobacterium, and Veillonella spp. Increased Bacteroides and Dorea spp. in the LCHF group was associated with decreased performance. | [35] |
Marathon runners: n = 15 (4/M, 11/F) Mean age 27.1 y; Non-runners: n = 11 (5/M, 6/F) Mean age 29.2 y; Ultramarathon and rower athletes: n = 11 (5/M, 6/F) Age not reported | Habitual training and a marathon Type of exercise not reported for the cohort of ultra-marathon and rower athletes | Dietary intake data collected by questionnaire | In marathon runners, the relative abundance of Veillonella spp. increased post-marathon. In ultramarathon and rower athletes, the relative abundance of the methylmalonyl-CoA pathway (degrading lactate into propionate) in the gut microbiome increased post-exercise. No correlations between dairy, protein, grains, fruits, or vegetables and Veillonella spp. abundance was observed among marathon runners. | [14] |
Non-athletes and sedentary subjects: | ||||
Healthy subjects n = 39 (22/M, 17/F) Age 18–35 y | VO2Peak test to assess CRF and to allocate subjects into groups (low, average, and high CRF) | 24-h dietary recall interview No significant differences in dietary intake between groups. | CRF correlated with microbial diversity and butyrate production. | [36] |
Active vs. sedentary women n = 40 Active: 30.7 ± 5.9 y, BMI 24.4 ± 4.5 kg/m2; Sedentary: 32.2 ± 8.7 y, BMI 22.9 ± 3.0 kg/m2 | Habitual physical activity measured by accelerometer. | Self-reported food intake (FFQ) Fiber, fruit, and vegetable intake significantly higher in the active group. | Higher abundance of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Roseburia hominis and Akkermansia muciniphila in active women. Physical activity was not associated with differences in microbiota richness. | [37] |
Lean and obese sedentary subjects n = 32 Lean: n = 18 (9/M, 9/F), mean age 25.10 y; Obese: n = 14 (3/M, 11/F), mean age 31.14 y | Exercise intervention study: 6 weeks of moderate-to-vigorous intensity aerobic exercise and 6 weeks without exercise | Maintenance of habitual diet during the intervention. A designed 3-day food menu, based on previous reported habitual diet, before fecal sample collection. | At baseline, the composition of gut microbiota differed between lean and obese subjects, but after exercise training, no difference was observed between lean and obese subjects. Exercise increased fecal SCFA and SCFA producing bacteria in lean subjects. | [15] |
Children and teenagers n = 267 (178/M, 89/F) Age 7–18 y | Self-reported physical activity | Type of diet reported as omnivore or vegetarian. | Gut microbiota composition was affected by BMI, exercise frequency, and diet type. Firmicutes were significantly enriched in subjects with more frequent exercise. | [38] |
Overweight sedentary women n = 17 Age 36.8 ± 3.9 y BMI 31.8 ± 4.4 kg/m2 | Habitual physical activity. Exercise intervention study: 6-week control period without exercise, 6-week programmed endurance exercise, on a bicycle ergometer | Habitual diet Self-reported 3-day food record No changes in intake of total energy, macronutrients or fiber from baseline, after control or exercise period. A modest increase in energy from starch | Exercise did not affect α-diversity. Exercise increased Akkermansia spp. and reduced Proteobacteria abundance. No significant changes in BMI or total fat mass after exercise. Significant reduction in android fat mass. | [16] |
Healthy subjects n = 37 (20/M, 17/F) Age 25.7 ± 2.2 y | VO2max test to assess CRF | Habitual diet recorded for 7 days | CRF correlated with Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. No correlation between dietary factors or BMI and Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. | [39] |
Elderly community-dwelling men n = 373 Age 78–98 y | Habitual physical activity, measured by activity sensor, for 5 days. Step count as primary physical activity variable | Self-reported food intake (FFQ) Step count was not associated with food or alcohol intake. | Physical activity was not associated with α-diversity but was positively associated with β-diversity. Increased physical activity was associated with greater Faecalibacterium and Lachnospira spp. prevalence. | [40] |
Elderly sedentary women n = 29 Age 65–77 y | Exercise intervention study: resistance training (trunk muscles) or aerobic exercise (brisk walking) for 12 weeks | Self-reported food intake (FFQ) No changes in energy or nutrient intake after interventions. | Brisk walking increased the relative abundance of Bacteroides spp. Bacteroides spp. abundance was positively associated with improved CRF after aerobic training but not with improved CRF after resistance training. | [17] |
2.2. Impacts of Exercise Interventions on Gut Microbiota
2.3. Effects of Targeted Gut Microbiota Modulation on Physical Performance
3. Probiotics as a Potential Ergogenic Aid to Enhance Physical Performance
3.1. Reduction of Gastrointestinal and Upper Respiratory Tract Symptoms
3.2. Enhancement of Physical Performance
Subjects | Design | Exercise Protocol and/or Intervention | Probiotic Supplementation | Main Results | Reference |
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Animal studies: | |||||
6-week-old male ICR mice 3 groups n = 8/group | Animal study | Forelimb grip strength Forced swim-to-exhaustion test, with loads 15-min swim test to determine recovery and fatigue-related biomarkers | L. plantarum TWK10 (LP10) Dosing per group: 0, 2.05 × 108; or 1.03 × 109 CFU/kg/day for 6 weeks | PRO improved forelimb grip strength and exhaustive swimming time. Blood lactate, ammonia, and CK levels were lower in PRO mice after a 15-min swim compared with those in control mice. Type I muscle fiber type increased, and relative muscle weight increased in PRO mice vs. control mice. | [88] |
6-week-old male ICR mice 4 groups n = 8/group | Animal study | Forelimb grip strength Forced swim-to-exhaustion test with loads 10-min and 90-min swim tests, to determine recovery and fatigue-related biomarkers | A kefir drink with L. fermentum DSM 32,784 (LF26), L. helveticus DSM 32,787 (LH43), L. paracasei DSM 32,785 (LPC12), L. rhamnosus DSM 32,786 (LRH10), and S. thermophilus DSM 32,788 (ST30) Kefir dosing per group: 0, 2.15, 4.31, or 10.76 g/kg/day for 4 weeks | Kefir supplementation increased time-to exhaustion, and improved forelimb grip strength. Blood lactate, ammonia, blood urea nitrogen, and CK levels were lower after exercise in kefir-fed mice compared with control mice, in a dose-dependent manner. Glycogen contents in the liver and muscle were higher in kefir-supplemented mice compared with control mice. | [89] |
11-week-old male Wistar rats 2 groups n = 13/group | Animal study | Incremental speed exercise on a treadmill, until exhaustion Treadmill chamber, coupled with gas-analyzer, to assess VO2max | Saccharomyces boulardii (strain not reported) 3 × 108 CFU/kg/day for 10 days | PRO supplementation moderately improved aerobic performance. PRO mice ran approx. 8 min longer than control mice (until exhaustion) and had higher maximal speed. | [90] |
7-week-old male ICR mice 4 groups n = 10/group | Animal study | Forelimb grip strength Forced swim-to-exhaustion test, with loads 10-min and 90-min swim tests, to determine recovery and fatigue-related biomarkers | B. longum subsp. longum OLP-01 isolated from a female weightlifter Dosing per group: 0, 2.05 × 109, 4.10 × 109, or 1.03 × 1010 CFU/kg/day for 4 weeks | PRO improved forelimb grip strength and swim-to-exhaustion time, in a dose-dependent manner. Blood lactate and ammonia levels were lower after the acute swim test in PRO vs. control mice. After a 90-min swim test, blood urea nitrogen and CK levels were lower in PRO mice compared with those in control mice. PRO increased hepatic and muscular glycogen contents, observed at autopsy. | [98] |
6-week-old male ICR mice 4 groups n = 10/group | Animal study | Forelimb grip strength Forced swim-to-exhaustion test, with loads 10-min and 90-min swim tests, to determine recovery and fatigue-related biomarkers | L. salivarius subsp. salicinius SA-03, isolated from a female weightlifter’s gut microbiota Dosing per group: 0, 2.05 × 109, 4.10 × 109, or 1.03 × 1010 CFU/kg/day for 4 weeks | PRO improved forelimb grip strength and swim-to-exhaustion time, in a dose-dependent manner. Blood lactate and ammonia levels were lower and blood glucose levels were higher after acute tests in the PRO groups vs. control group. After a 90-min swim, blood CK levels were lower in PRO groups compared to the control group. PRO increased hepatic and muscular glycogen contents, observed at autopsy. | [99] |
Clinical studies: | |||||
Swimmers | |||||
Highly trained competitive swimmers n = 17, females Age not reported | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | 6 weeks of intensified off-season training, including swimming and resistance exercise. Performance assessment: Vertical jump force plate test, aerobic and anaerobic swim performance test Cognitive assessment: stress and recovery during the intensified exercise training load (the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes) | B. longum 35,624; 1 × 109 CFU bacteria/day for 6 weeks | No significant differences in exercise performance or systemic inflammation markers (at rest) between PRO and PLA. Differences in cognitive outcomes were detected showing more favorable sport recovery related scores in the PRO group. | [93] |
Swimmers n = 46, females Age 13.8 ± 1.8 y | Randomized, placebo-controlled | Normal exercise regimen Performance assessment: 400-m free- swimming record, Harvard step test to, measure VO2max | L. acidophilus SPP, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, B. bifidum, and S. salivarus subsp. thermophilus, strains not reported 400 mL of probiotic yogurt/day with 4 × 1010 CFU/mL for 8 weeks | Significant improvement in VO2max in the PRO group. No differences in 400-m swimming times between PRO and PLA groups. | [82] |
Endurance runners | |||||
Elite distance runners n = 20, males Age 27.3 ± 6.4 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | Habitual winter-season training Performance assessment: A treadmill running test until exhaustion, at the start of the study period and the end of each study month | L. fermentum VRI-003; 1.2 × 1010 CFU bacteria/day for 4 weeks Cross-over study, with 1-month wash-out | No difference in performance outcomes with PRO compared to PLA. The number of illness days during PRO supplementation was significantly lower than with PLA (30 vs. 72 days). IFN-γ response was moderately higher with the PRO than with PLA. | [81] |
Endurance-trained runners n = 8, males Age 26 ± 6 y | Randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, cross-over | Habitual training Bout of exercise: 2-h running exercise at 60% VO2max in hot ambient conditions | L. casei (strain not reported) 1 × 1011 CFU/day for 7 days Cross-over study, with 1-month wash-out | No differences in hydration status between PRO and PLA. Inflammatory cytokine levels were not different between PRO and PLA, either pre-exercise or post-exercise (1, 2, 4, and 24 h after running). | [100] |
Endurance-trained runners n = 8, males Age 26 ± 6 y | Randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, cross-over | Habitual training Bout of exercise: 2-h running exercise, at 60% VO2max, in hot, ambient conditions | L. casei (strain not reported) 1 × 1011 CFU/day for 7 days Cross-over study with 1-month wash-out | PRO and PLA did not differ in salivary anti-microbial protein or serum cortisol responses during the post-exercise period (1, 2, 4, and 24 h after running). | [101] |
Runners n = 10, males Age 27 ± 2 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over | Normal training Performance assessment: Running to fatigue, at 80% of ventilatory threshold, at 35 °C and 40% humidity | Multispecies probiotic, strains not specified; L. acidophilus, L. rhamnosus, L. casei, L. plantarum, L. fermentum, B. lactis, B. breve, B. bifidum, and S. thermophilus 45 × 109 CFU/day for 4 weeks, cross-over study with a 3-week wash-out | PRO increased run time to fatigue (PRO 37:44 vs. PLA 33:00 min:sec). A moderate, non-significant reduction in pre-exercise and post-exercise serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels for PRO compared to PLA. No difference between PRO and PLA in plasma IL-6, IL-10, and IL-1Ra or GI permeability after exercise in the heat. | [77] |
Marathon runners n = 42, males Age 39.5 ± 9.4 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Usual training Bout of exercise: marathon run | L. casei Shirota 40 × 109 CFU/day for 30 days | PRO maintained salivary immune protection and increased anti-inflammatory response on the upper airways, immediately after the marathon. Serum TNF-α level was significantly lower immediately post-marathon in the PRO group compared to that in the PLA group | [102] |
Marathon runners n = 119 (105/M, 14/F) Average age 40 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | 3-month training period, 6-day preparation period Bout of exercise: marathon run | L. rhamnosus GG 4.0 × 1010 bacteria in drink/day (or 1 × 1010 in tablet/day) for 3 months | PRO did not differ from PLA in ox-LDL or antioxidant activity, pre- or post-marathon. | [103] |
Marathon runners n = 24 (20/M, 4/F) Age 22–50 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo- controlled, matched-pairs | Habitual training routine Performance assessment/Bout of exercise: Marathon race (no baseline assessment) | L. acidophilus CUL60, L. acidophilus CUL21, B. bifidum CUL20, and B. animalis subsp. lactis CUL34 2.5 × 1010 CFU/day for 28 days | No difference in marathon times between PRO and PLA. During the final third of the race, the reduction in average relative speed was greater in PLA compared to PRO. GI symptoms were lower in PRO compared to PLA during the final third. No difference in post-race serum IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and cortisol levels between groups. | [104] |
Ultramarathon runners n = 32 (26/M, 6/F) Age 23–53 y | Randomized, controlled (single-blind for glutamine supplementation) | Training for a marathon, ultra-marathon race of 294 km Performance assessment: A graded exercise test, to maximal exhaustion, on a motorized treadmill, VO2max test, pre-marathon, time-to-completion in ultra- marathon race | PRO: Multi-strain probiotic, daily dose 30 × 109 CFU comprising of 10 × 109 CFU L. acidophilus CUL-60 (NCIMB 30,157), 10 × 109 CFU L. acidophillus CUL-21 (NCIMB 30,156), 9.5 × 109 CFU B. bifidum CUL-20 (NCIMB 30,172), and 0.5 × 109 CFU B. animalis subsp. lactis CUL-34 (NCIMB 30,153 + 55.8 g fructooligosaccharides PRO + glutamine: Daily dose 2 × 109 CFU L. acidophilus CUL-60 (NCIMB 30,157), 2 × 109 CFU L. acidophilus CUL-21 (NCIMB 30156), 5 × 107 CFU B. bifidum CUL-20 (NCIMB 30,172), 9.5 × 108 CFU B. animalis subsp. lactis CUL-34 (NCIMB 30,153), and 5x 109 CFU L. salivarius CUL61 (NCIMB 30,211) + 0.9 g glutamine 12 weeks before the marathon | No difference in pre-race VO2max or in time-to-completion for ultra-marathon between PRO, PRO + glutamine, and control groups. PRO and PRO + glutamine had no effects on immune activation via extracellular heat-shock protein eHsp72 signaling at post-race. | [94] |
Cyclists, triathletes | |||||
Competitive cyclists n = 99 (64/M, 35/F) Age 35 ± 9 y/M and 36 ± 9 y/F | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Habitual training (physical activity recorded) Performance assessment: an incremental cycle ergometer performance test (peak power output, VO2max) | L. fermentum VRI-003 PC 1 × 109 CFU/day for 11 weeks | PRO did not affect training patterns or performance in VO2 max testing. Acute exercise-induced changes in anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines were attenuated with PRO. | [71] |
Triathletes Study I: n = 18, Study II: n = 16 Sex not reported Age 19–26 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | 8 weeks of programmed training before a sprint triathlon (Study I) or full triathlon competition (Study II) Performance assessment: Wingate and 85% VO2max test (after full triathlon) | L. plantarum PS128 3 × 1010 CFU/day Study I: last 4 weeks of training Study II: last 3 weeks of training | In Study II, performance during recovery from a full triathlon was decreased in the PLA group and maintained at the pre-triathlon level in the PRO group. PRO group had lower blood TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-8 levels compared to PLA, immediately after exercise (Study I/II), with levels significantly lower in PRO group 3 h after full triathlon (Study II). Anti-inflammatory IL-10 was higher in the PRO group, immediately after exercise (Study II) compared with that in the PLA group. No differences in muscle damage or fatigue markers detected between groups (Study I/II) except, lower CK in PRO vs. PLA, 3 h after full triathlon (Study II). Oxidative stress marker (MPO) was lower in PRO after exercise, with no differences 3 h post-exercise. | [105] |
Elite athletes (badminton, triathlon, cycling, alpinism, karate, savate, kayak, judo, tennis, and swimming) n = 50 (36/M, 14/F) Age 18–28 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Habitual training >11 h/week, self-reported training loads Performance assessment: VO2max, by a graded cardiopulmonary test, on a treadmill Cognitive assessment: Profile of mood and state (POMS) questionnaire | L. helveticus Lafti L10 2 × 1010 CFU/day for 14 weeks | No difference in VO2max and treadmill performance between PRO and PLA. Increase in the subjective feeling of vigor in the PRO group, but no difference in other cognitive scores between groups. | [84] |
Recreational triathletes n = 30 (25/M, 5/F) Age 35 ± 1 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Standardized training program for the previous 6 months Performance assessment/Bout of exercise: a long-distance triathlon (no baseline assessment) | Multistrain probiotic, daily dose 30 × 109 CFU (10 × 109 CFU L. acidophilus CUL-60 (NCIMB 30,157), 10 × 109 CFU L. acidophillus CUL-21 (NCIMB 30,156), 9.5 × 109 CFU B. bifidum CUL-20 (NCIMB 30,172), 0.5 × 109 CFU B. animalis subsp. lactis CUL-34 (NCIMB 30,153)) + 55.8 g fructo-oligosaccharides, alone or in combination with 600 mg N-acetyl carnitine + 400 mg α-lipoic acid for 12 weeks before and 6 days after triathlon | Non-significantly faster times were reported for PRO during swim and cycle stages, and a trend towards an overall faster time was reported compared to PLA (~86 min faster). No baseline measurements on performance were assessed. PRO reduced post-race plasma endotoxin levels, whereas PLA had no effect. | [73] |
Team sports | |||||
Division I volleyball and soccer athletes n = 23, females Age 19.6 ± 1.0 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Offseason resistance training protocol Performance assessment: 1RM testing (bench press, squat, deadlift), isometric midthigh pull, vertical jump height, pro-agility test | Bacillus subtilis DE111 5 × 109 CFU/day for 10 weeks | PRO had no effect on strength or athletic performance but significantly reduced percentage of body fat percentage. | [96] |
Division I baseball athletes n = 25, males Age 20.1 ± 1.5 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Resistance training program Performance assessment: 1RM testing (squat, deadlift), pro-agility test, 10-yard sprint, standing long jump | Bacillus subtilis DE111 1 × 109 CFU/day for 12 weeks | No differences between PRO and PLA in strength, performance, or body composition. PRO reduced TNF-α levels, but no differences in IL-10, cortisol, zonulin, or testosterone levels observed between PRO and PLA. | [95] |
Highly trained athletes n = 29 (13/M, 16/F) Age 20–35 years | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Normal training Performance assessment: Cycle ergometer exercise test until exhaustion | B. bifidum W23, B. lactis W51, Enterococcus faecium W54, L. acidophilus W22, L. brevis W63, and L. lactis W58 1 × 1010 CFU/day for 12 weeks | No difference in performance between groups. Weekly training loads were significantly higher in PRO compared to PLA (8.0 ± 2.3 vs. 6.6. ± 4.3 h/week). Exercise-induced reduction in tryptophan levels in PLA but not in the PRO group. PRO reduced the incidence of URT infections. | [85] |
Active non-athletes | |||||
Resistance trained subjects n = 15, males Age 25 ± 4 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover | Muscle-damaging eccentric exercise bout Performance assessment: isometric peak torque, after muscle damaging-exercise | S. thermophilus FP4, and B. breve BR03 5 × 109 CFU of each/day for 21 days | PRO attenuated performance decrements caused by muscle-damaging exercise during the recovery period. No effects of PRO on muscle soreness, range of motion, or plasma creatine kinase. PRO lowered resting IL-6 concentrations that were sustained until 48 h post-exercise. | [106] |
Recreational exercisers n = 29, males Age 21.5 ± 2.8 y | Single-blind, crossover (casein first, after washout, PRO+casein) | Single-leg exercise bout Performance assessment: Anaerobic power by modified Wingate test, single-leg vertical jump, strength, by 1RM testing in the one-legged leg press, after muscle damaging-exercise | Bacillus coagulans BC30 1 × 109 CFU/day + 20 g casein for 14 days | PRO + casein increased perceived recovery status and reduced muscle soreness after exercise compared with casein alone. PRO + casein maintained post-exercise Wingate peak power at the pre-exercise level, whereas casein alone demonstrated reduced post-exercise performance. For 1RM leg-press and vertical jump power, no differences between groups in post-exercise performance. | [107] |
Physically active subjects n = 27, females Age 18–25 y | Controlled, randomized | Habitual moderate exercise Performance assessment: treadmill running until exhaustion, VO2max test (Bruce test) | Probiotic not specified 450 g of probiotic yogurt/day for 2 weeks | No difference in VO2max between PRO and PLA. PRO yogurt increased antioxidant enzyme activities and reduced MMP2 and MMP9 levels before and after exhaustive exercise. No significant differences between PRO and PLA in high-sensitivity CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α after intense exercise. | [108] |
Physically active students n = 11, sex not reported Age 22 ± 1 y | Non-controlled | Habitual training including endurance exercise Bout of exercise: 2-h cycling at 60% of VO2max | L. acidophilus, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, L. casei, L. helveticus, L. plantarum, L. rhamnosus, L. salivarius subsp. salivarius, B. breve, B. bifidum, B. infantis, B. longum, Bacillus subtilis, S. thermophilus minimum 2 × 109 CFU/capsule, 3 capsules/day for 30 days | Rating of perceived exertion during exercise was not different between PRO and PLA. PRO did not affect salivary antimicrobial proteins at rest or in response to an acute bout of prolonged exercise. | [109] |
Students n = 67, males and females (n not specified by sex) Age 18–24 y | Controlled | The exercise groups completed structured, long-distance, endurance run training, whereas the active group maintained their usual exercise routine. Performance assessment: 1.5-mile (2.41 km) walk or run | Probiotic kefir, probiotic strain and dose not specified 15 weeks | No effect of PRO on 1.5-mile completion time. PRO attenuated exercise-induced inflammation, measured as serum CRP levels. | [110] |
Students of physical education n = 30, males Average age: PRO 21.56 y, PLA 21.28 y | Randomized, matched pairs | Habitual training and training program by the study Performance assessment: Cooper test, maximum aerobic power, using Bulk test on a laboratory treadmill | Probiotic strains unspecified, included S. thermophilus and/or L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus 1 × 105 CFU/g in 200 mL yogurt/day for 10 weeks | PRO improved VO2max and aerobic performance. PRO decreased serum high-sensitivity CRP and increased HDL levels. | [111] |
Healthy participants n = 16, males Age 20–40 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Habitual exercise Performance assessment: Treadmill running at 85% VO2max workload, until exhaustion. | L. plantarum TWK10 1 × 1011 CFU/day for 6 weeks | PRO improved time-to-exhaustion (PLA vs. PRO: 817 ± 79 s vs. 1292 ± 204 s). Blood glucose was higher in PRO vs. PLA after exhaustive exercise. No differences in post-exercise blood lactate, free fatty acid, CK levels between PRO and PLA. | [91] |
Healthy participants n = 54, (27/M, 27/F) Age 20–30 y | Double-blind, placebo-controlled | Habitual exercise Performance assessment: treadmill running, at 60% VO2max and 85% VO2max workload, until exhaustion | L. plantarum TWK10 3 × 1010 CFU/day or 9 × 1010 CFU/day for 6 weeks | Exhaustion time was increased in both PRO groups and were longer compared to PLA. Improvement in exercise capacity was dose-dependent. PRO reduced serum lactate during and after exercise compared to PLA. Muscle mass increased in the high-dose PRO group. | [92] |
Healthy sedentary individuals n = 41, males Age 19–26 y | Randomized, parallel, placebo-controlled | Circuit training protocol, including resistance exercises, 3 times a week Performance assessment: muscular strength (peak torque) and power via an isokinetic dynamometer | L. acidophilus BCMC 12,130, L. casei BCMC 12,313, L. lactis BCMC 12,451, B. bifidum BCMC 02,290, B. infantis BCMC 02,129 and B. longum BCMC 02,120 6 × 1010 CFU/day for 12 weeks | PRO did not show superior effects to PLA on muscular strength (peak torque) and power. PRO alone and exercise alone increased post-intervention serum IL-10 concentrations from pre-intervention levels. PRO and PLA with or without exercise, had no effects on serum IL-6 concentration. | [97] |
Healthy elderly individuals with stretching experience n = 29 (14/M, 25/F) Age > 65 y | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Moderate resistance exercise training, in instructed classes and at home Cognitive assessment: General cognitive performance (incl. tests for accuracy, reaction time), mental state (scoring for depression, anxiety, and overall mental state) | B. longum BB536, B. infantis M-63, B. breve M-16V and B. breve B-3 5 × 1010 CFU/day (1.25 × 1010 CFU each probiotic/day) for 12 weeks | An increase in the general cognitive function scores was observed in PRO and PLA groups, at 12 weeks. PRO group showed a decrease in anxiety-depression scores, body weight, BMI and body fat. | [112] |
3.3. Improvement in Post-Exercise Recovery
3.4. Improvements in Mood-Related Outcomes
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Marttinen, M.; Ala-Jaakkola, R.; Laitila, A.; Lehtinen, M.J. Gut Microbiota, Probiotics and Physical Performance in Athletes and Physically Active Individuals. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102936
Marttinen M, Ala-Jaakkola R, Laitila A, Lehtinen MJ. Gut Microbiota, Probiotics and Physical Performance in Athletes and Physically Active Individuals. Nutrients. 2020; 12(10):2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102936
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarttinen, Maija, Reeta Ala-Jaakkola, Arja Laitila, and Markus J. Lehtinen. 2020. "Gut Microbiota, Probiotics and Physical Performance in Athletes and Physically Active Individuals" Nutrients 12, no. 10: 2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102936