Road Racing Event Management Satisfaction: A Scoping Review of the Literature in Different Populations

Abstract

The main purpose of this scoping literature review is to map empirical research concerning the satisfaction of road race participants, as well as what leads to their return and how events should be promoted and managed. The search was made on EBSCO, Academic Search Complete, Business Source Complete, Web of Science online database for studies between 2000 and 2020 using the following as keywords: “road race”, “marathon”, “running event”, “running”, “satisfaction”, “event loyalty”, “consumer behaviour”, “marketing”, and “communication”. After applying the inclusion criteria, 32 studies were selected. The descriptive analysis showed that satisfaction with the event depends on the quality of service provided, the image of the event, satisfaction with personal performance, perceived economic value, and disconfirmation of expectation, while the intention to revisit is largely affected by satisfaction with the event in different populations. In addition, various market segmentations are obtained according to the age and the gender, as well as important management and marketing information. The conclusions of this review can contribute to a better management and organization of road racing events around the world.

1. Introduction

Sports events are used to enhance sport and the organization that manages and coordinates them. Events nowadays increasingly belong to the leisure industry, so modern events are also one of the strongest ways for socializing and for people to be able to relax and to have fun [1].

Management and control of the customer decision efficient require services in marketing management. One of its advantages is the positioning of prestigious events, which utilizing all essential communication tools leads to a much wider audience reach [2]. Marketing, when applied to sport, has several advantages, given that its main function is value creation and communication with potential customers, all for the sake of sports organization [3]. Not forgetting that all strategies must consider external opportunities and threats to the service, the event itself is already a great marketing and communication medium as it becomes much more effective through the athlete’s personal experience when competing in the race [2].

An analysis carried out together with the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) with results from the United States and Europe showed from 2009 to 2019 an increase of 57.8% of participants in road races, thus increasing from 5 million to almost 8 million participants [4]. Road races events can differ in the size, considering the people they attract, and it can be a small, local event or a mega event in large cities, having a huge audience.

The road racing event market is on the rise, but it has become increasingly crowded, where companies are increasingly competing [2].

With the increase in adherence to mass sporting events, more specifically road racing, companies also began to invest in innovation, trying to differentiate themselves in the market, opening up a new range of types of events offered [5]. Attending to this reality, managers must be able to grasp which aspects of the service will influence their participants or viewers and consequently affect their satisfaction. Therefore, they can later define marketing strategies in terms of the services offered and the prices that bring advantages to them [6].

Furthermore, with the growth of the sporting events industry, consumer experiences come to gain an increasingly important role [7]. Attending to this scenario and considering the fact that the satisfaction component only occurs after all costumer decision-making is completed [8], it is necessary to meet the customers’ expectations regarding the quality of service; consequently, this will enable the organization to keep the customer loyal to its services [9].

The intention of revisiting the events is a consequence not only of satisfaction but also of what leads the client to decision making [8]. Service loyalty is what all organizations look for with their customers, as loyal customers make repeat purchases [10], so their intention to attend the event will be higher. The intention to revisit can be more determined by the factors and elements of the service that actually attracts customers than even by what satisfies them, but satisfaction remains an essential element in this decision [8].

Loyalty and satisfaction are positively correlated, as one increases, the other in turn also increases—thus, the greater the satisfaction, the greater the favourable attitudes towards the organization and the recommendation of the organization, and the greater the repurchase behaviours [11]. On the other hand, satisfaction has a direct positive effect on commitment, which is emotional, and this, in turn, is directly related to loyalty [11]. Even in small-scale events, the psychological benefits of the participants are evident, and inspiration to participate can lead to satisfaction with life and potential behaviours of individuals such as the intention to participate and their recommendation [12].

Attending to this scenario, the purpose of this review was to provide a synthesis of empirical research concerning the satisfaction of road race participants, as well as what leads to their return and how events should be promoted and managed according to different demographics variables. In this way, taking into account the studies already carried out, we intend to offer relevant information that provide reflections and strategies that managers can adopt when planning and organizing future events, more specifically, identification of the main common aspects that lead to the satisfaction of participants, identification of the main aspects mentioned that lead participants to revisit the event, and identification of the best management and promotion strategies for events that have the greatest impact on participants.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Databases and Selection Process

This review focused on publications from January 2000 to December 2020. This type of literature review is an easy tool to map studies on various topics of interest and goes through five steps: identifying the research question, identifying relevant studies, organizing the study selection, charting the data, and, finally, collating, summarizing, and reporting the results. Starting from the research question to investigate the extent to which empirical research provides evidence on the elements that can lead to better management and organization of sporting events, the search was made on EBSCO, Academic Search Complete, Business Source Complete, Web of Science online database for studies between 2000 and 2020 using the following research equations in the search fields Summary, Subject, and Title: road race AND satisfaction; marathon AND satisfaction; running event AND satisfaction; running AND satisfaction; road race AND event loyalty; marathon AND event loyalty; running event AND event loyalty; running AND event loyalty; road race AND consumer behaviour; marathon AND consumer behaviour; running event AND consumer behaviour; running AND consumer behaviour; road race OR marathon OR running event AND marketing OR communication.

Inclusion criteria were added: only peer-reviewed studies, both empirical and conceptual studies, in English, published between January 2000 and December 2020 in academic journals, with a focus on the theme under study. This period was chosen because the type of events under study had a thorough development over the last two decades. The exclusion criteria included were (a) comments, commentaries and opinions, letters to the editor, interviews, specific editorials, conference abstracts or posters, book chapters, and books; (b) lacking details or quantitative information. Resources with these characteristics were not included in the review.

The initial research resulted in a total of 2141 studies. After removing 712 duplicates using the EndNote X7 software, the abstract and subject of the remaining 1429 studies were screened to assess their relevance using the inclusion criteria, resulting in the exclusion of 1367 studies because of the following reasons: 382 were not empirical studies, 158 did not have full text, 37 were not written in English, and 790 were not related to the focus on the subject under study. Search parameters were strictly applied to the remaining 62 full-text studies. Studies that did not explore the purpose of this study were excluded, that is, all studies that did not study participants’ satisfaction, which leads to their intention to revisit and how the management and promotion of road racing events should be carried out. The final number was 32 empirical research studies that were thoroughly reviewed. A PRISMA flowchart [13] was used to show the extraction process (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Scoping review PRISMA flowchart.

2.2. Analytical Framework

Descriptive information (author, years, journal, and country) about each study was provided to map the studies included in the scoping review. After this overview, an in-depth analysis was made using the procedures of an inductive hematic analysis [14]. Initially, all the studies’ information was compressed into tables to better analyse the more important information. Subsequently, there is an analysis of each study related to its objectives, abstracts, and results in order to label it with initial codes before grouping them into more generic topics; finally, generic topics were organized into two major themes: (1) satisfaction and intention to revisit road racing events; (2) promotion and management of road racing events. Some studies fit both themes and, therefore, were framed in the theme of greatest interest and focus on each study.

3. Results

The number of publications varies throughout the years, with more stability evident between 2015 and 2016 (Figure 2). Interestingly, the number of studies per year does not change too much, ranging from one to three studies, except in 2020 with the largest number of studies (n = 10). It is also important to note that from 2015 there are more studies (n = 24) than from 2002 to 2014 (n = 8).

Figure 2. Number of studies per year.

3.1. Thematic Analysis

3.1.1. Satisfaction and Intention to Revisit Road Racing Events

After analysing the studies, the themes of satisfaction and intention to revisit road racing events were identified (Table 1) in studies from three continents, America, Europe, and Asia. All surveys used the quantitative method of analysis, using questionnaires as tools, all of which were duly validated. Quantitative data were used in the 21 studies and analysed on Likert scales, and only one study used qualitative data—two open questions. In most studies, the sample refers only to athletes who actively participated in competitions, and in two of the studies spectators were either part of the sample or were the main focus. Despite the samples not being completely homogeneous, we also decided to include spectators, due to the fact that they bring important information to the study from the perspective of passive participants who do not interact directly in the competition but interact with the other aspects of the event, and, therefore, their reasoning must be taken into account when managing and organizing the event.

Table 1. Analysis of studies on satisfaction and intention to revisit road racing events.

Country/Author /Year	Purpose of Study/Participants	Instrument	Findings
Taiwan Hsiao et al. [15]	Understand the behaviour of consumers engaged in marathon running. 299 marathon runners.	Questionnaire, measured: intergenerational influences (8 items), peer influences (8 items), traditional media (12 items), conformity (12 items), and running behaviour (9 items). Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data using SPSS.	Intergenerational influence is positively associated with event marathon running behaviour. Peer influence is positively associated with event marathon running behaviour. Traditional media are positively associated with event marathon running behaviour. Conformity moderates the effect of event intergenerational influences on event marathon running behaviour.
Spain Vegara-Ferri et al. [16]	Determine which factors influence the future intentions of the tourist involved in small-scale sports events. 236 participants.	Online survey, measured six factors: communication, staff, electronic wom-of- mouth, destination image, satisfaction, and future intentions, total of 18 items. The data were analysed through Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis.	Satisfaction is a mediated factor between staff and destination image with future intentions of repeating the event. Electronic word of mouth (eWOM) and satisfaction were influencing factors that predicted the tourists’ future intentions. The staff factor has a positive and significant influence on communication. Staff has a positive and significant influence on the destination image. Staff has a positive and significant influence on satisfaction. Communication has a positive and significant influence on the destination image. eWOM has a positive and significant influence on destination image. eWOM has a positive and significant influence on future intentions. Destination image has a positive and significant influence on satisfaction. Satisfaction has a positive and significant influence on future intentions.
Perú Martínez-Cevallos et al. [17]	Analyse the segmentation of participants in a sports event according to their perceived quality, perceived value, satisfaction, and future intentions. 195 runners.	Online questionnaire, made up of standardized scales adapted from previous studies, measured: participation in popular races, sports habits, perceived quality, value, satisfaction, and future intentions with socio-demographic variables. Cluster analysis through SPSS was performed on the data.	Two different user profiles arose that were called Non-Conformist and Conformist. These two groups show significant differences in perceived quality, perceived value, satisfaction, and future intentions. Conformists register higher scores. In the scale of perceived quality, the Non-Conformists participants point out that the material elements used in the event are not visually attractive; they also do not agree that the organization should not make mistakes or that it should provide personalized attention. On the opposite side, we find the opinion of the Conformists. Following this, it was identified that general satisfaction of the event does not have low valuations except when comparing with the group of Conformists. In terms of perceived value, the Non-Conformists stand out for not agreeing with the price of the race; they do not feel that good service is being offered for what they have paid. The Conformist group is where the highest average ratings of the whole questionnaire are found, in referring to what about participating in the event makes them feel good and also to what about being part of the event makes them feel some pleasure. It can be identified that, in both groups, they are willing to return to the competition, recommend it, and talk well about it.
China Duan et al. [18]	Examine the relationships among marathon spectator motivation, satisfaction, and behavioural intention in China. 1566 spectators.	Standard self-completion questionnaire, measured: satisfaction (spectators’ enjoyment, desire, and satisfaction of an event); consumption behavioural intention (level of spectator revisiting, participating in, and recommending the event in the future). Structural equation modeling and regression analysis were conducted.	The extent of spectators’ motivations is positively related to the behavioural intention and satisfaction. The satisfaction of spectators positively affects the behavioural intention. With regard to motivations, excitement and diversion have significant effects on satisfaction and behavioural intention, while socialization was not significant in terms of behavioural intention.
China Xiao et al. [19]	Examine foreign participants’ service quality, satisfaction, and behavioural intention during the 2016 Shanghai International Marathon. 308 foreign runners.	Questionnaire, measured: demographics, service quality (physical environment quality—4 questions, interaction quality—4 questions; outcome quality—3 questions), satisfaction (2 questions) and behavioural intention (5 questions). Analysis of the data through a structural equation modeling.	Service quality of the 2016 Shanghai International Marathon has a direct effect on foreign participants’ overall satisfaction and behavioural intention separately but is also indirectly related to their behaviour intention through the mediating effect of overall satisfaction. The foreign participants’ overall satisfaction of the 2016 Shanghai International Marathon has a direct impact on behavioural intention.
USA Du et al. [20]	Deciphering key motivational bases to examine the antecedents and consequences of event satisfaction. 4850 participants from two events	Online survey, measured: motivational antecedents of satisfaction (34 items adapted from the Exercise Motivation Inventory—2 and SPEED scales), event satisfaction (3 items), behavioural intentions (2 items), participants’ social-economic status, demographic characteristics, geographic location, and past behaviour. Parallel Analysis and sequential model testing were conducted to analyse data.	Participatory sport event benefits are positively associated with event satisfaction, namely euphoric, fitness, competition, social, and entertainment benefits. Event satisfaction mediated the relationship between event participation benefits and behavioural intentions. The realization of motivational benefits indirectly influences behavioural intentions, specifically event return intention and positive word of mouth, through event satisfaction.
USA Hyun et al. [7]	Develop a comprehensive understanding of consumer experiences in participant sport events. 3186 runners.	Online survey, measured: athletic goal achievement, athletic performance satisfaction (2 items), goal importance (1 item), perceived economic value (3 items), service quality (using Participant Sport Event Attribute and Service Delivery scale with 22 items and five dimensions), overall event satisfaction (3 items), re-participation intention (1 item), future exercise intention (1 item). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used for data analysis.	The quality of service and economic perceived value has a positive effect on overall satisfaction of the event, which in turn positively affects the intention of returning to participate in the event. Achievement of athletic goals had a positive effect on performance satisfaction and will lead to overall satisfaction of the event. Conducting athletic goals had positive effects on the intention of future year participation and intention to return to participate.
Taiwan Lee et al. [21]	Construct a participative behaviour model for sports tourists. 363 marathon runners.	Survey, measured: the sports tourism attraction scale (10 questions), the sports event image scale (10 questions), the participative motivation scale (11 questions), and the participative satisfaction scale (12 questions). Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation modelling.	Sports tourism attraction had a significant positive influence on participative motivation; meanwhile, celebrity participation in sports event and the surrounding activities are not the main motivation of the sport tourists. The sports event image had a significant positive influence on participative motivation, and participative motivation has significant positive influence on participative satisfaction and loyalty; participative satisfaction had significant positive influence on loyalty. It was further found that sport tourism attraction and sports event’s image can indirectly affect participative satisfaction and loyalty through participative motivation.
Japan Ninomiya et al. [22]	Examine the relationship between the destination image and behaviours of marathon participants with different levels of behavioural running involvement. 2794 marathon runners.	Online survey, measured: destination image (24 items in 7 dimensions: urban, nature, culture, value, safety, climate, service, and convenience), place attachment (2 dimensions, 4 items each), satisfaction, behavioural intentions. MANOVA and ANOVA were used to analyse data.	The low involvement group had no influence on intentions to participate in the event again; this means that prior running and event experience do not influence intentions to participate in the event again. Only satisfaction with the marathon event was a significant predictor of all destination image factors. Satisfaction played a significant role in intentions to participate in the event again. The influence of destination image factors and event satisfaction were still evident in their ability to predict sport event tourist intentions to revisit a sport event that is held in the same destination every year.
Taiwan Chao-Sen [23]	Explore the application of total quality management (TQM) to road running competitions, as well as the correlation and influence between the involvement and willingness of re-participation of road runners. 956 runners.	Study scale, measured: total quality management (TQM), with seven dimensions (including customer relationship management, personnel training, product design management, quality information, continuous improvement, and procedure management) and 24 questions to assess road runners after the introduction of TQM. Revisit intention and developed the re-participation intention scale based on the characteristics of this study (21 questions). The measurement is based on the sport involvement scale, including cognition and the effect of sport involvement that contains eight items. Confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation model analysis, and regressions were used to analyse data.	Sports involvement of participants has a significant and positive impact on their willingness of re-participation. In terms of the two dimensions of sports involvement, road runners attach higher importance to psychological factors of sports involvement. Among the six dimensions of TQM, road runners attach the highest importance to customer relationship management, followed by procedure management. Sport involvement has an intermediary role in the path of influence of TQM on willingness for re-participation.
Greece and USA Zhou et al. [12]	Explore the sources of inspiration for active participants in sport events and the link between inspiration sources and event-related outcomes (i.e., life satisfaction and behavioural intentions). 264 Greek runners. 103 USA runners.	Qualitative data collection, measured: online survey, two open-ended questions were used to investigate the sources of inspiration from running event participation. Quantitative data collection: online survey with three rating scales; life satisfaction was measured in single item; behavioural intentions was measured in two items. Content analysis and multivariate analyses of variance were used on the data.	Interaction between sources of inspiration and the type of event has significant effects on the perception of life satisfaction and the intentions of participating in the event again. Greek athletes express high intentions to participate in future events; the highest category of inspiration was intrapersonal and interpersonal links and the lowest was event services and profile. Marathon athletes’ intention to participate was different from short distance athletes (5k/10k) when inspired by services and event profile and personal goals but not when inspired by interpersonal and intrapersonal connections.
USA Baker et al. [24]	Investigate the influence of consumer characteristics (prior race experience, gender, age, education, family structure, and area of residence) on event satisfaction and the satisfaction–repeat participation link in the context of a long-distance running event. 3295 runners.	Online survey, measured: consumer characteristics (demographic, geographic, and past behaviour variables), satisfaction with 3 items, behaviour, and behavioural intention. Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data.	First-time athletes, men, and athletes with a university degree of less than 4 years had a higher overall satisfaction. Event satisfaction positively affects repeated participation behaviour. Future participation intent is positively associated with satisfaction, past behaviour (experience), area of residence (location), distance from event (half marathon), children in household (existence), marital status (single).
Greece Alexandris et al. [25]	Investigate whether the three service quality dimensions (service environment, interaction, and outcome quality) influence the development of event loyalty among runners of the “Alexander the Great” International Marathon”. 368 runners: 183 less involved runners. 185 highly involved runners.	Online survey, measured: sport event quality—12 items with three dimensions; event loyalty—2 items; running involvement—12 items. Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data.	In both engagement groups, only the dimensions of the quality of the physical environment and the quality of the results had a positive influence on the runners’ loyalty to the event. For the low involvement group, the physical environment and the quality of the result accounted for 55% of the variation in runner loyalty. For the high involvement group, 44% of the variance was explained by the quality of the physical environment and the quality of the result. Quality of service is most important for the development of event loyalty among runners with low involvement.
Hong Kong Kim et al. [26]	Investigate how event prestige as a sport participation motive plays a role in runners’ intentions to return to an annual mass participant sporting event (MPSE). 456 runners.	Survey of 57 items, measured: perceived event prestige (PEP) with 4 items; sport commitment with 3 items; participation motives with 42 items; intent to return with 1 item; and demographic information. ANOVA was used to analyse data.	Athletes with low commitment had the following reasons: strength and endurance, positive health, pleasure, and challenge; the intention to return was affected by the positive health and prestige of the event. Athletes with a high level of commitment had the following reasons: pleasure, positive health, strength and endurance, and challenge; the intention to return was affected by pleasure and strength and endurance.
Japan and USA Okayasu et al. [27]	Make a preliminary assessment of the expected relationship between event participation and loyalty in a marathon event in two countries. 420 runners.	Questionnaire, measured: organizers’ perceived resource investments (OPRIs) scale using 13 items, participants’ reported resource investments (PRRIs) scale with 9 items, scale of loyalty with 3 items, resistance to counter persuasion with 4 items, and socio-demographics. Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data.	American athletes reported higher levels of satisfaction than Japanese. American athletes had more positive attitudes and higher loyalty levels than Japanese athletes. The study reveals differences in communication among athletes from both countries as well as differences in how runners saw their roles and the nature of the race in which they participated. Japanese and American athletes’ views differed significantly in how OPRIs related to loyalty. Loyalty had a difference in recommendation and satisfaction between the two countries. OPRIs showed differences in each factor: care; course treatment; race information, and registration/registration information.
Canada Halpenny et al. [28]	Explore the factors that promote destination and event sustainability—specifically visitors’ intention to re-visit and recommend a destination and sport tourism event. 387 active sport tourists	A survey, measured: socio-demographic characteristics, motivations for travel using 25 items modified from Driver’s, and attachment to the park and the event. Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data.	Loyalty to the place is positively affected by attachment to the event. Loyalty to the event was predicted directly and positively by the event link and the opinions of the athletes regarding the adequacy of the park in the race context. One-third of the intentions to revisit and recommend the park and participate in the race were explained: 31% for the sustainability of the event and 36% for the sustainability of the visit to the park.
USA Du et al. [29]	An internal assessment of time–goal achievement on participants’ event satisfaction that would contribute to positive outcomes. 3476 athletes from Southeast United States and 4828 from the Northeast.	An initial pool of 28 items was generated based on consultation with event organizers to capture a spectrum of service attributes and extensions. The deployment of a full spectrum of service attributes and extension had the capacity to capture heterogeneous aspects of service quality to understand performance. Covariance-based structural equation modeling was used to test the data.	Event satisfaction, service quality, and expectancy disconfirmation positively affect future behavioural intentions. Personal performance is not significant for future behaviour. Quality of service, personal performance, and expectancy disconfirmation positively influence satisfaction with the event. Perceived value is not significant for event satisfaction
Greece Theodorakis et al. [30]	The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship among service quality variables in order to understand how an experience influences the levels of experiential happiness among event participants. 300 runners (5 k and 10 k races).	Online survey with three items, measured: service quality—physical environment quality (captured using four items), interaction quality (included four items measuring), and outcome quality (three items were selected to measure the consequences of participation in running events). Structural equation modeling analysis was used to analyse data.	Physical environment and outcome quality had statistically significant influence on runners’ satisfaction. Outcome quality not only influenced significantly satisfaction with the event experience but also exerted the strongest impact on satisfaction compared to the other two service quality components. Both outcome quality and satisfaction with the event had a direct positive effect on runners’ happiness.
USA Koo et al. [31]	Investigate the hierarchical relationship among event image, satisfaction, and behavioural intention in the context of a small-scale marathon event. 297 runners.	Questionnaire with four sections, mesaured: event image using SEI scale using 13 items, satisfaction measured using 2 items, behavioural intention measured using 2 items, and socio-demographics. Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data.	Most athletes had a good image of the event, a high level of satisfaction, and a positive behavioural intention. The image of the event significantly influences satisfaction with the event and behavioural integration. Satisfaction has a significant effect on behavioural intention. Indirect effect of event image on behavioural intention through satisfaction.
Germany Wicker et al. [32]	Analyse the key driving factors that influence consumer expenditure and intention to revisit at marathon races. 1156 participants and spectators.	Two-fold approach, a participant and a spectator survey. The questionnaire measured: travelling to the host city; length of stay in the city; expenditures in the city; the satisfaction and perceived image of the event; and the intention to revisit. Regression analyses were used to analyse data.	Perceived image of marathon races and satisfaction with event operations were determining factors for consumers’ intention to revisit the city and marathon, so they had a positive influence. But through satisfaction, the intention to revisit was greater for the city than for the marathon. Participants (athletes and volunteers) were more likely to revisit marathon events, but not the city, than spectators.
USA Funk et al. [33]	Examine the developmental role of these events in increasing positive attitudes toward physically active leisure. 2791 runners.	Online survey, measured: physically active leisure outcomes included future exercise intention (3 items) and funning commitment (3 items), sport event participation motives using exercise motives inventory (EMI-2) with 35 items, event satisfaction (3 items), physical activity involvement (3 items). Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data.	Benefits of pleasure, strength and endurance, positive health, competition, prevent disease, stress management, and social recognition were significant positive predictors of running commitment, while challenge, weight control, physical appearance, and health pressure were significant negative predictors. Event satisfaction, past completed events, race distance type, and physical activity level were positive predictors of running commitment. Future exercise intent was explained: the motives of challenge, stress management, health pressure, strength and endurance, social recognition, social affiliation, prevent disease, and weight control were positive predictors, while competition was a negative predictor. Event Satisfaction was a positive predictor.

According to the authors, satisfaction of the athletes with the events can result from several factors. The results of the studies show that the quality of service provided [7,29] as well as the perceived economic value, which refers to the comparison of the investment that was made with the gains from the participation at the event [7], will positively affect satisfaction with the event.

Another factor that also leads athletes to be satisfied with the event is its image. The better the athletes’ image of the event, the greater their satisfaction; it is important to mention that this image will depend on two aspects, one cognitive and the other affective [31]. This factor is also identified as having a positive effect on participation intent [31,32]. According to Lee et al. [21], satisfaction and participatory loyalty are affected indirectly by the image of the event, as well as by the attraction of sports tourism, through sports motivation, that is, the reasons that led them to participate. In terms of image, Vegara-Ferri et al. [16] mentioned that the destination image and staff directly affect satisfaction. Communication as well as eWOM will indirectly affect satisfaction through the image of the destination.

Regarding the intention of athletes to revisit the events, several authors agree that the overall satisfaction of the event influences this intention, that is, the higher their satisfaction, the greater their intention to participate in the event again [7,16,18,19,20,21,22,24,29,31,33]. Satisfaction with event operations [32] as well as total quality management [23] will also positively affect revisit intent.

Just as it was found that quality of service and expectancy disconfirmation positively affect satisfaction, they also affect the intention to revisit the event [29], and even service quality for foreign participants will affect this intention [19]. The same happens to eWOM that will positively affect future intentions [16]. Consumer behaviour is also affected by consumer socialization, notably through intergenerational influence, peer influence, and traditional media [15].

Another factor that influences this intention is the interaction between participants’ sources of inspiration and the type of event. Since athletes of shorter distances (5 km and 10 km) maintain their high intention through being inspired by any of the sources such as profile and services or characteristics of events, personal goals, interpersonal and intrapersonal connections, and social experience. On the other hand, marathon runners only hold this intention highly if they are inspired by interpersonal and intrapersonal connections, not differing in this source of inspiration from short distance athletes [12].

This intention of athletes to participate in the future is also positively associated with past behaviour (experience in other events), area of residence (living near where the event takes place), distance from the event (shorter tests), existence of children in the household, and marital status (single) [24]. On the other hand, this intention can also be explained by the reasons for challenge, stress management, health pressure, strength and endurance, social recognition, social affiliation, disease avoidance, and weight control, in a positive way and competition as a negative predictor [33].

Concerning the loyalty to the event, it is positively affected by the connection established with the event but also by the suitability to the place where the event takes place [28].

3.1.2. Promotion and Management of Road Racing Events

Subsequently, studies on marketing and road race event management were analysed (Table 2). A quantitative method of analysis was used in all studies, using questionnaires as a tool in all 11 studies. Only one study used qualitative data, and the remaining ones used quantitative data analysed on scales. In most studies, the sample refers only to athletes who participated in the competitions, and, in one study, the stakeholders of this events were the main focus of the study which helps us to have an internal perspective on some matters related to management.

Table 2. Analysis of studies on promotion and management of road racing events.

Country/Author/Year	Purpose of Study/Participants	Instruments	Findings
Singapore Fam et al. [34]	Examine the effect of marathon enthusiasts’ perceptions towards venue quality, race competition, organization, and service quality on their intention to participate in a destination marathon in the emerging region’s context. 177 valid marathon enthusiasts.	Questionnaire with three sections, measured: respondent profile, determinants of perceived value, and the intention to visit as a tourism destination as well as intention to participate in another marathon. Partial least squares-sructural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used on data analysis.	Perceived venue quality, perceived service quality, and perceived race competition positively influence the perceived value of the destination marathon. Perceived organization, perceived venue quality, and perceived race competition positively influence the intention to participate in the destination marathon. Perceived value positively influences the intention to participate in the destination marathon. Perceived value mediates the relationship between perceived venue quality and intention to participate in the destination marathon, between perceived race competition and the intention to participate in the destination marathon, and between perceived service quality and the intention to participate in the destination marathon, but not between the perceived organization and the intention to participate in the destination marathon. Intention to tour the host destination moderates the relationship between perceived value and intention to participate in the destination marathon
Poland Malchrowicz-Mośko et al. [35]	Recognize motivation among children aged 12 for participating in children’s running events in Poland. 48 young runners.	Survey, measured: people’s motives for doing sport and contains 30 items, using the Motives for Physical Activity Measure–Revised scale. Inferential statistics were used as the t test.	The most important motives for children were enjoyment/interest motives, followed by competence/challenge motives, then fitness motives, and appearance motives. The least important were social motives.
Greece Koronios et al. [36]	Suggest a theoretical framework of sport marketing research with a focal point on sport participation in semi-marathon events. 268 runners.	Questionnaire, measured: Physical health, mental and emotional balance, revitalization, running attachment, attractiveness of the event, socializing, sportscape factors, and intention to participate. Inferential statistics tests were used as the Cronbach’s α test.	Intention of recurring participation is positively related to perceived benefits in mental and physical health, attachment with running, socializing opportunities, attractiveness of the respective running event, and the destination’s elements of the semi-marathon event. Promotion of physical health significantly predicted future participation intention in running events as did the perceived attractiveness of the event. For men, the only significant factor was perceived attractiveness of the event, showing significant differences in the motivation between male and female runners.
USA Hall et al. [37]	Explore the major concerns and challenges in preparedness and implementation of risk management strategies at marathon running events in the United States. 40 event organizing stakeholders	Survey Qualitative data collection, measured: perceived risks, specific risks of critical concern, and major challenges faced when developing and implementing risk management strategies. Qualitative data were analyzed using member cheks and triangulation.	Principal identified risks: inclement weather; bomb threat; crowd control; medical issues; active shooter; logistical failure; and emergency response time. The major challenges cited concern developing and implementing risk management strategies at race events and included: interagency communication, staff/volunteer recruitment and training, knowledge of jurisdictional responsibilities, finances, course logistics/equipment, and balancing the public safety with a race friendly environment.
USA Eddy & Cork [38]	Measure participants’ sponsorship awareness, and assess a model designed to predict participants’ behavioural intentions toward the sponsors of the Fayetteville Race Series. 95 runners.	Survey, measured: aided recall (recognition) of event sponsors; sponsor image (3 items), goodwill (4 items), sport commitment (3 items), future event participation intention (3 items), and sponsor behavioural intention (3 items) Path analysis was used in the data.	The actual sponsor was recalled more frequently than their matched foil(s) for the road race. Sponsor image had the greatest direct effect on behavioural intention; however, sponsor goodwill had the greatest total effect on behavioural intention, so sponsor image will mediate the relationship between goodwill and participants’ behavioural intentions.
Slovenia, Slak et al. [39]	Identify the present market and predict the future target markets of the runners at the Istrian Marathon. 770 runners.	Web questionnaire, measured: demographic characteristics; the running distance; the travel company; main motive for attending the first Istrian Marathon. CHAID (CHi-square Automatic Identification Detector) segmentation method analysis was used to process data.	Athletes who come to the marathon with partners, friends, or co-workers are more likely to attend the event for entertainment. Runners who came to the marathon alone or with their families are more likely to attend the event to participate in a sporting event. As a “recreation” reason, athletes who came to the marathon alone or with their family or those over 40 who came with their partner, friends, or co-workers are more likely to attend the recreation event. As a “meet with other athletes” motive, athletes who have been running with an organized group of runners, those over 40 and who have come with partners, friends, or co-workers, are more likely to come to the marathon to meet with other runners. As a reason to get a result and self-confirmation, athletes who came to the marathon alone or with their family or those under 40 who came with their partner, friends, or fellow runners are more likely to participate to get a result and self-confirmation.
South Africa Kruger & Saayman [40]	Determine the motives of Comrades Marathon runners in order to identify and profile the market segments competing in this ultramarathon. 437 runners.	Questionnaire of three sections, measured: Section A—demographic details and spending behaviour. Section B—specific information about the race. Section C—motivational factors for competing in the race (24 items). Data analysis was performed through factor analyses, a cluster analysis, and an analysis of significant differences between the motivational clusters.	Among the runners, 205 “recreational athletes” and 142 “serious athletes” were identified. More serious athletes were foreign participants or participants who speak African languages. More recreational athletes were in high-income occupations and had a higher level of education, which could explain their higher running expenses. Significantly more serious athletes would again compete with comrades, while more recreational athletes were unsure about this. More serious athletes heard about the television race, while recreational athletes consulted journals. More recreational athletes had heard about the event through word-of-mouth recommendations. For example, his affiliate club had started a more serious participation of athletes. More recreational athletes had decided to participate in the race well in advance, while more serious athletes decided to compete spontaneously. More serious athletes visited other tourist attractions in the area coincidentally with the race. Significantly more recreational athletes participated in other sporting activities, while serious athletes were not likely to participate in other sporting activities besides the marathon.
USA McKelvey et al. [41]	Assess participants’ attitudes toward the practice of ambush marketing. 3413 runners.	Questionnaire, measured: running patterns, past marathon experiences, involvement in running, aided and unaided awareness of sponsors, and attitudes toward the practice of ambush marketing. Statistics procedures were used as ANOVA, exploratory factor analysis, and descriptive statistics.	Participants maintain a negative attitude toward the practice of ambush marketing. The existence of a good relationship between sponsor and race (the most remembered were the ones that were used during the course). More involved athletes identify more and have more adverse opinions.
Sweden Getz & Andersson [42]	Analyse whether highly involved runners differ from less involved runners to confirm one or more of the six dimensions of the event-tourist career path. 1230 runners of half marathon.	Online Questionnaire, measured: motivation scale; involvement scale; event and destination choice scale. Inferential statistics were used to analyse data.	Athletes with a high level of involvement participate in more events compared to the previous year; plan to attend more events the following year; are more likely to receive race information through internet browsing and websites; are more motivated due to being more involved; and make longer and longer trips. Regarding the factors of choice of the events, the majority involved giving more importance to have all the necessary information in a friendly site and for the event to be well organized, but they also give importance to new experiences every time at events; scenic and interesting routes; expectations of good weather; atmosphere of the party event; reputation and prestige of the event.
USA Kyle et al. [43]	Examine methods of manipulating consumers’ price expectations for a 10K road race offered by a public sport and leisure service provider. 468 runners of 10 km.	Questionnaire, measured: 1 control group, 5 treatment groups. Tests of the hypotheses were conducted on data.	Information on the cost of providing services, which suggests loss of service or personal loss, increases price expectations.
USA Kyle et al. [44]	Construct profiles of participants based on their level and type of involvement. 468 runners of 10 km.	Questionnaire, measured: consumer involvement profile (CIP) scale to measure participants’ social-psychological involvement with running with 15 items; importance–performance (IP) scale measured the importance of various elements of the Great Race’s management and how well the agency performed in its provision of services. Confirmatory factor analysis, reliability coefficients and cluster analysis were procedure in the data.	Three factors of involvement were identified: pleasure, risk consequence, and personal identity. They identified 3 groups: (1) Enthusiasts who had high involvement mainly focused on self-identity, pleasure was also important, and they had low risk perception. (2) Performers contained high values in all facets of involvement, so they perceived a strong likelihood of a negative experience. They were more likely to subscribe to journals. (3) Recreationists had low values in self-identity and pleasure, and they associated low risk with their participation. Regarding elements of the organization’s services, all gave greater importance to management elements and performance indicators, but recreationists gave lower ratings. As for the evaluation, the performers were more satisfied with the performance of the organization, followed by the enthusiasts, and finally the recreationists.

The importance of identifying runners’ motivation in order to promote important insights for the development of marketing strategies, such as market segmentation, to be used by event organizers is clarified. In this context, five types of athletes were identified that varied according to their reasons for participation. The former sought entertainment, going with friends, partners, or even co-workers. The second attended just for their participation in the event, being alone or accompanied by family. The third participated for recreation and could go alone or with family and could be over 40 and go with friends. The fourth participated in order to meet with other athletes, either competing in races with an organized group of athletes or could be over 40 and going with friends or colleagues. Finally, the fifth competed with the goal of achieving a result and self-assertion, who came alone or with the family [39].

Still, to identify market segments, two types of athletes were identified: serious and recreational. The most serious athletes were the most likely to repeat the event again: ones for whom a club had registered, the decision to participate was not made well in advance, they visited other tourist attractions in the area but did not participate in other tourist activities beyond the race. Recreational athletes were not sure whether they would participate again: they were aware of the event through word-of-mouth, journals, and recommendations; they decided to participate well in advance; and there were more receptive to participating in other sporting activities [40].

Concerning the management of events, the results of the studies also showed some essential ideas. From a viewer’s perspective, they identified the critical success factors for a memorable experience as amenities, marketing, personnel and provisions, and comfort and visibility [45].

From the athlete’s perspective, some factors of event selection were identified, as well as which services of the organization are most important. Regarding the factors of choice of events, athletes give more importance to having all the necessary information in a friendly site, the event being well organized, offering new experiences every time at events, providing scenic and interesting route, expecting good weather, showing good atmosphere at the party event. These factors are common to athletes with high and low levels of involvement, but athletes with high involvement also value the reputation and prestige of the event [42].

Regarding the management and organization of these same events, major risks were identified, such as inclement weather; bomb threat; crowd control; medical issues; active shooter; logistical failure; and emergency response time. Consequently, to manage these risks, it is necessary to have interagency communication, staff/volunteer recruitment and training, knowledge of jurisdictional responsibilities, finances, course logistics/equipment, and balancing the public safety with a race friendly environment [37].

4. Discussion

The current review allows us to identify several important factors that help event organizers understand which changes can be made to create greater satisfaction with the event that will directly lead to greater intention to revisit the event. Thus, we can think that all elements found to positively affect athletes’ satisfaction with the event, such as quality of service, perceived economic value, satisfaction with performance, and the physical environment, indirectly will also lead to a greater intention to revisit the event.

Although athletes’ satisfaction is affected by the parameters mentioned above, some studies carried out by other authors have ended up showing contradictory results. Hyun and Jordan [7] reported that the perceived economic value as well as the quality of service affect satisfaction with the event; on the contrary, Du et al. [29] indicate that the perceived value is not statistically significant as an element influencing satisfaction, and Theodorakis et al. [30] report that not all dimensions of the quality of service affect satisfaction, identifying the quality of interaction as not being statistically significant.

Concerning the intention to revisit, there are also some disagreements. In general, the main characteristics identified that influence the intention to revisit are satisfaction with the event, quality of service, expectancy disconfirmation, quality of the physical environment and results, image of the event, previous behaviours, and sports involvement.

Unlike Duan et al. [18], Hsiao et al. [15] considered that social interaction is an important factor that can influence consumer behaviour in marathon events.

Regarding sports involvement and its link with the intention to revisit the event, according to Chao-Sen [23], the involvement will have a positive effect on the willingness to participate again, just as Baker et al. [24] say that the intention to participate in the future is positively associated with past behaviours. On the contrary, Ninomiya et al. [22] identified in their study that involvement, that is, both previous races and experiences, has no influence on the intentions to participate in the event. According to Fam et al. [34], the perceived organization will not positively influence the perceived value of the marathon.

The athletes who participate in these events are not homogeneous groups, and these differences may be the results of the geographic distribution of the studies. It is also important not to forget that these events are full of athletes with different participation goals, having varying emphases on the leisure aspect, leading to athletes with different levels of involvement, motivations, and aspirations.

According to Alexandris [25], the quality of the results will positively affect the intention to revisit. On the contrary, Du et al. [29] state that personal performance is important for satisfaction with the event, but it is not statistically significant for the future behaviour of athletes to repeat the race again. This issue can be justified by the event distance factor that is linked to the intention to revisit the event. Athletes who participated in shorter runs had a greater intention to revisit the event than athletes who ran longer distances.

According to Okayasu et al. [27], the factors that lead to satisfaction and intention to revisit vary between the United States and Japan. This variance may be due to the differences between western and eastern cultures in the way they have different perceptions of life and sport.

As for the results found that segment the market, it is essential for event managers to know their market so that they can structure their event. It is a valuable piece of information so that customer acquisition marketing strategies can be developed later, bringing numerous advantages to the organization, thus having implications for managing the event [42,43].

The importance of creating consumer profiles was clearly defined in order to be able to manage marketing strategies in the most effective way. Having to define specific strategies for different groups, general strategies may not be the most suitable for certain profiles and, thus, compromise the success of the event.

In these marketing strategies, the information obtained about price expectations can be included, applying the best price strategy that is profitable for the organization. Consumers’ response to prices has been an important question for event organizers. This response will be highly influenced by the choices of communication strategies, and the implementation of more effective strategies will lead to greater acceptance by consumers in relation to the price increase [43].

The motivations of participants in the events are also an important theme of study because after knowing the true motivations, managers will be able to keep athletes connected with the events, making their participation recurrent. Still, regarding the motivation for participating, Malchrowicz-Mośko et al. [35] managed to highlight the most important motivations for children and adolescents. In this way, they managed to carry out a marketing strategy increasingly targeted at the groups in question, not only focused on adults but also on youths, promoting these events in the best way and encouraging participation at all ages.

Results about sponsors are also beneficial to the organization. If athletes remember the sponsors, the sponsors will be happier, so the organization–sponsor relationship will also improve. It, thus, becomes a beneficial relationship for both parties, for the sponsors because they will have their due recognition and for the organization as it becomes more likely that supporters will sponsor the event again in a future edition, and if there is good will on the part of the sponsor and if the image of the sponsor is positive, these will also lead to positive future behavioural intentions. The ambush marketing study proves to be a source of discoveries for managers, being important in that it can increase the ability to renew sponsors. Although sporting events may be hampered by this type of marketing, events such as large marathons can benefit [41].

The achievement of the success of the event also applies to the identification of risks, and it is essential for the risk management team to develop strategies for each of them, achieving a better performance even if they happen, leading to an effective and efficient management, not neglecting these important factors that never should be forgotten. Hall et al. [37] end up highlighting factors that must be considered when carrying out risk management planning effectively so that the organization of the event can be prepared for any eventuality, putting aside the risk of cancelling the event.

5. Conclusions

The analysis emphasizes important aspects that lead to the athletes’ satisfaction and their return to the event as well as ideas that must be considered regarding the management and promotion of the event, believing that they can contribute to a better management and organization of sports events. Findings reveal that satisfaction with the event will depend on the quality of service provided, the image of the event, satisfaction with personal performance, perceived economic value, and expectancy disconfirmation; in general, the better the participants’ view of the to these aspects, the better their satisfaction with the event. The intention to revisit will be affected by satisfaction with the event; if participants are satisfied, they are more tolerant of revisiting. Regarding the marketing discoveries, several profiles were identified that make it possible to make the market better known which offers a best approach to each profile, perceiving their needs in order to be satisfied with the event, which deserves attention on the part of the organization. Although there is a growing interest in understanding the factors that can lead to the management of sport events, notably road racing, further studies are needed to address some discrepancies in the results and to understand the origin of these differences. It is essential to utilize all information in order to lead to better management of road racing and greater satisfaction and intention of athletes to revisit, leading to the success and prestige of the event according to demographics variables such as age or gender.