Autonomous Innovations in Rural Communities in Developing Countries III-Leverage Points of Innovations and Enablers of Social-Ecological Transformation

Abstract

To address the complex and difficult challenges that are occurring in complex social-ecological systems, a transformation toward sustainable futures is required. Understanding the characteristics and functions of leverage points (LPs), which bring about significant changes in complex systems, will greatly contribute to the various practices toward achieving sustainable futures. We conducted a detailed analysis of 15 cases of autonomous innovations emerging among vulnerable sectors in six countries to contribute to understanding the mechanisms of transformation of social-ecological systems by identifying the characteristics and functions of LPs. We found that three types of LPs with different characteristics play their roles in a multi-layered and interrelated manner in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations. These LPs contributed to the improvement of various aspects of well-being and facilitated the transformation of the social-ecological systems by enhancing the five previously proposed enabler categories. The multi-layered and interrelated functioning of LPs promotes the enhancement of various aspects of human well-being and strengthens the enabler categories. These were found to be important mechanisms for the transformation of social-ecological systems. Based on these results, we derive nine guiding principles for the conditions and mechanisms of transformation. These results indicate that a deeper study of autonomous innovation through an LP lens could make a significant contribution to solving or mitigating the wicked problems faced by humanity.

1. Introduction

1.1. Leverage Points to Promote the Transformation of Social-Ecological Systems

To achieve sustainable futures, it is necessary to solve the various challenges summarized in the SDGs [1,2]. The various services provided by forests, oceans, agricultural lands, and other ecosystems are called ecosystem services [3]. Their global degradation is intricately linked to the social challenges that humanity faces, such as inequality and poverty [4]. Nature and human activities are deeply interconnected and constitute complex systems which are called social-ecological systems [5,6,7]. The various challenges that arise in social-ecological systems are extremely difficult to solve, with no fixed problem to be solved and a myriad of solutions. Such complex and unanswerable challenges are called wicked problems [8,9,10]. Wicked problems arise because of the complex interactions between society and the natural environment around us due to their intricate connection. Therefore, the solution or mitigation of wicked problems requires a transformation of the social-ecological systems [11,12].

The concept of leverage points (LPs) is gaining attention as a mechanism for bringing about the transformation of complex systems. An LP is a critical component, among the myriad of components that make up a system, that can cause significant changes in the behavior of the system as a whole [13,14,15,16]. Understanding the characteristics of LPs and applying them effectively can facilitate solutions to complex challenges, such as the degradation of natural resources and other ecosystem services, and achieve the transformation of social-ecological systems toward sustainable futures.

1.2. Autonomous Innovations Emerging among Socially Vulnerable People

Numerous examples have been found around the world where transformation has been achieved to solve or alleviate the wicked problems faced by complex social-ecological systems [17,18]. We have collected and analyzed cases in which socially vulnerable people in developing countries have created innovations that have facilitated the transformation of social-ecological systems [11,19]. The socially vulnerable people in developing countries are usually seen as targets of aid, but in reality, they are autonomous innovators of various innovations addressing difficult challenges on their own [20,21]. We define “autonomous innovation” as “actions emerging from local practitioners with the potential to transform social-ecological systems, and the mechanisms that support them” [19]. Innovators who promote the emergence of innovations simultaneously achieve sustainable resource management and improvement of various aspects of human well-being. Thus, the continued emergence of autonomous innovations among socially vulnerable people, especially in developing countries, will facilitate the transformation of social-ecological systems.

Tajima, et al. (2022) found that autonomous innovations starting from motivations closer to everyday life could produce by-products of collective actions that promote public value enhancement [19]. They argued that this process was important to the emergence of innovations that could address wicked problems. It was also important for the innovators to have a proactive attitude toward continuous improvement rather than being satisfied with short-term outcomes, to promote the emergence of autonomous innovations to achieve the integrated management of diverse natural resources. They also reported that self-sustained and adaptive collective actions were required to create synergies for integrated natural resource management [19]. These observations indicate that it is critically important to examine the conditions and mechanisms of the emergence of autonomous innovations among socially vulnerable people in developing countries to promote the transformation of social-ecological systems.

1.3. Application of the Leverage Point Lens

Socially vulnerable people in developing countries are generating various impacts through the emergence of autonomous innovations to solve or mitigate wicked problems in complex social-ecological systems. Their autonomous innovations produce these impacts through sustainable resource management and the improvement of human well-being [11,19]. Therefore, identifying the leverage points (LPs) involved in the emergence of autonomous innovations and clarifying their characteristics will help us understand the mechanisms of transformation of social-ecological systems [15,16].

The emergence processes of autonomous innovations that we have collected thus far can be described as causal chains in a time series [22,23,24,25,26]. Takemura et al. (in press) have developed an analytical method for LP identification using causal network analysis. They also clarified that LPs were classified into three types with different characteristics [27]. Since this method is based on causal relationship chains, it allows us to analyze the function of LPs in the emergence of innovations along the time series in detail. Therefore, we decided to analyze the LP functions in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations among socially vulnerable people to achieve the sustainable management of diverse natural resources and improvement of human well-being. These analyses will contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms of transformation of social-ecological systems.

1.4. Transformation Mechanisms of Social-Ecological Systems

Tajima et al. (2022) discussed that autonomous innovations improved various aspects of human well-being, which in turn created new collective actions and promoted the transformation of social-ecological systems [19]. Therefore, a detailed time-series analysis of the relationships between LPs and indices of human well-being would help us understand the mechanisms of transformation. Based on case studies of transdisciplinary research and practices in local communities around the world, Sato, et al. (2018) proposed five hypothetical categories of enablers of the transformation of social-ecological systems, “facilitate collective actions”, “identify and visualize values”, “build new linkages”, “provide options and opportunities”, and “encourage multiple translators and viewpoints” [28]. However, there have not been enough evidence-based verifications accumulated regarding the relationship of these enabler categories with the emergence processes of innovations and the transformation of social-ecological systems. A detailed analysis of the relationship between LPs and these enabler categories will facilitate further understanding of transformation mechanisms.

1.5. Research Questions

This study clarifies the conditions and mechanisms of transformation of social-ecological systems by analyzing the process of emergence of autonomous innovations to achieve integrated natural resource management and the improvement of human well-being by answering three research questions. We applied the classification of LPs proposed by Takemura et al. (in press) for the characterization of LP functions and analyzed what types of LPs function at what stages of the emergence process of autonomous innovation, what indicators of human well-being these LPs are associated with, and the relationship between LPs and the enablers of the transformation of social-ecological systems [27].

• How do diverse LPs function in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations?
• What aspects of human well-being do LPs contribute?
• Through what enabler categories do LPs produce impacts on the transformation of social-ecological systems?

2. Methods

2.1. Analysis Target

We described the emergence processes of autonomous innovations among socially vulnerable people in developing countries in the form of narratives and accumulated them in a simple database, the autonomous innovation toolbox [19]. The narratives of autonomous innovations analyzed in this study were 15 of 20 narratives in the toolbox with sufficient information for detailed analysis. These narratives were co-created in three regions in Indonesia (Gorontalo, Polewali, and Jeneberang), one in the Philippines (Ifugao), one in Thailand (Rayong), one in Fiji (Wai), three in Malawi (Nkhotakota, Salima, and Chembe) and one in Turkey (Karapinar) (see supplementary materials of Tajima et al. [19]).

2.2. Identification and Classification of Leverage Points

Takemura et al. (in press) extracted causal chains from the narratives of autonomous innovations organized in the autonomous innovation toolbox, converted each causal chain into a chronological list of nodes and links, and drew causal networks [27]. In this study, we used this methodology to draw network diagrams for 15 innovations. Takemura, et al. (in press) also developed a new definition of LPs using network centralities and developed an analysis method to identify nodes that have a significant impact on social-ecological systems as LPs [27]. LPs were classified into three types (“in”, “out”, and “all”) according to the characteristics of the nodes. The LP (in) functions to integrate components, such as local conditions, challenges, actors inside and outside the region, as well as innovation outcomes, technologies produced, new knowledge, and new human networks, into the emergence processes of innovations. The LP (out) promotes new practices for creating innovation outcomes, and visualizes new challenges. The LP (all) is an LP that dynamically transforms the emergence processes of innovations through the integration of various components into the processes as well as through the creation of new practices and visualization of new challenges [27]. We used this method to identify LPs for the above 15 narratives of autonomous innovation and classified them into three types.

2.3. The Function of the Leverage Points in the Emergence Processes of Autonomous Innovations

Figure 1 shows a conceptual diagram of the causal network of an autonomous innovation produced using the methods of Takemura et al. [27]. Initial conditions motivate and trigger an autonomous innovation. The process of various collective actions that arise from these conditions is expressed as a feedback loop. Various outcomes are generated, and the remaining challenges are visualized from these collective actions.

Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of a causal network.

The figure shows the process by which a feedback loop representing outcomes (blue line) is generated from initial conditions (yellow arrow) and new challenges (gray arrow) are visualized, as well as the positions of the three hypothetical types of LPs in the process.

To clarify how the three types of LPs function in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations, we divided the individual LPs into three stages according to their position in the chronological list of nodes and links (edge list) extracted from the narratives [27]. Each innovation was composed of approximately 35 to 50 nodes and links. We defined the “initial stage” within the first 30% of the list, the “developing stage” from 30% to 70%, and the “outcome-generating stage” as over 70%. We assumed that the LPs in the initial stage promote collective actions triggered by initial conditions, the LPs in the developing stage promote the development of collective actions and progress toward outcomes, and the LPs in the outcome-generating stage are those that generate the outcomes of collective actions and bring the remaining challenges to light. Based on these assumptions, we analyzed the functions of LPs in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations.

2.4. Relationship between LPs and Human Well-Being

We analyzed the relationship between LPs and four indices of human well-being to determine the aspects of human well-being to which LPs promoting the emergence of innovations contribute. The four indices of human well-being proposed by the millennium ecosystem assessment represent “basic materials for a good life”, “safety”, “health”, and “good social relations”; the fulfillment of these four indices is a necessary condition for achieving “freedom of choice and action” [3,29,30]. Therefore, we focused on the four basic indices, excluding “freedom of choice and action”, in the analysis of this paper (see supplementary materials of Tajima et al. [19] for more details).

We examined the relationship between three types of LPs and four indices of human well-being for 15 autonomous innovations. We hypothesized that the indices of human well-being associated with LPs in the initial and developing stages represented the most important and direct motivating and triggering components of autonomous innovations, while the indices of human well-being associated with LPs in the developing and outcome-generating stages referred to aspects of human well-being that were enhanced by autonomous innovation. We also assumed that the indices of human well-being to which an LP relates were not necessarily singular, but that an LP might relate to multiple aspects of human well-being.

We determined correspondences between LPs and indices of human well-being using the criteria based on the contexts of each LP in the narratives. Concerning the relationship between the “basic materials for a good life” and LPs, we focused on contributions to improving the lives of socially vulnerable people. Regarding the relationship of an LP with “safety” and “health”, we selected only the cases where there was a broad impact on the community. LPs were related to “good social relations” only when the social relations among important actors in local communities were evident. We analyzed the relationship between each LP and the human well-being indices based on the number of LPs associated with each human well-being indicator at each stage. We tried to understand what aspects of human well-being triggered and motivated the emergence of autonomous innovations and what outcomes of these innovations improved different aspects of human well-being.

2.5. Relationship between LPs and the Enabler Categories of Social-Ecological Transformation

We analyzed the relationship between LPs and five categories of enablers proposed by Sato et al. [28] to identify at what stage and through which enablers LPs contribute to the transformation of social-ecological systems. Enablers are defined as the “factors responsible for knowledge-based adaptive societal transformation toward sustainable futures, working synergetic to mobilize the collective decision making and action.” They further defined the five categories of enablers as follows [28].

“Firstly, co-produced knowledge can identify and allow collective visualization of new sharable values in local communities that may serve to mobilize collaborative decision making and actions (i.e., “identify and visualize values”). Secondly, it may build new linkages among actors within and outside the community, including actors addressing broader issues (i.e., “build new linkages”). Thirdly, the co-produced knowledge may expand options and opportunities for sustainable actions among stakeholders and mediates changes in environmental perception (i.e., “provide options and opportunities”). The shared knowledge may directly enable and facilitate collective actions, which transform existing local institutions or form new ones (i.e., “facilitate collective actions”). And finally, knowledge translators (individuals or institutions), playing their roles at multiple scales and levels, can catalyze all these processes by employing and emphasizing new contextualization of knowledge (i.e., “encourage multiple translators and viewpoints”).” (Sato et al., 2018 p. 6).

We analyzed the correspondences between LPs and the five categories of enablers in 15 autonomous innovations. We determined the relationship between the LPs and the enabler categories based on the contents of the LPs and contexts within the causal network. We selected enabler categories that contributed to the non-negligible changes that the LPs made to the overall system. We also assumed that a single LP could be associated with more than one enabler category. We analyzed which function of the enabler category was more strongly promoted by each LP in a stage based on the number of LPs that were associated with each category. We tried to understand which enabler category is strengthened by the LPs in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations to facilitate the transformation of the social-ecological systems.

3. Results

3.1. The Function of LPs in the Emergence Processes of Autonomous Innovations

Figure 2 shows the actual positions of the three types of LPs in an example of the causal network of the emergence processes of autonomous innovations; LPs in the initial stage (green, numbers 9 and 29) are located near the initial conditions (yellow arrows), the LP in the developing stage (red, number 26) appears in the middle of the feedback loops, and LPs in the outcome-generating stage (blue, numbers 29 and 32) appear at the end of the feedback loops or near the remaining challenges (grey arrows). LPs (all), which are represented by circles, fulfill the dual functions in the initial stage (green, number 29) and outcome-generating stage (blue, number 29).

Figure 2. The location of the three types of leverage points in the causal network (Innovation No. 10: Seasonal fishing bans around Mbenji Island by traditional chiefs).

The types of LPs (in, out, all) are represented by the shapes of the symbols, and the stages of the LPs are represented by the colors of the symbols. Yellow and grey arrows indicate the initial conditions and remaining challenges of the innovation. The size of the nodes in the network diagram represents the value of betweenness centrality (BWC), according to the definition of LP by Takemura et al. (in press), and the arrows represent the direction of causal relationship links. For more details of the causal network diagrams, please see Figure 3 of Takemura et al. (in press) [27].

Figure 3. Numbers of the three types of LPs per stage.

We identified 63 LPs from 15 autonomous innovations and organized all LPs into types according to the stages (Table 1). In total, 20 LPs (in), 15 LPs (out), and 22 LPs (all) were identified. Although all three types of LPs functioned in all stages, the frequency of each type differed among stages. The LP (in) functioned in all autonomous innovations but there were three innovations without LPs (out) and two without LPs (all). There were no innovations lacking both LPs (out) and LPs (all).

Table 1. Identified LPs at each stage of autonomous innovations. The numbers at the beginning of the titles of LPs represent the node numbers in the causal networks; shadowed cells are LPs (all) performing different functions at different stages. The numbers in parentheses in the innovation numbers at the leftmost column are the innovation numbers in Tajima et al. (2022) [19].

No.	Name of Innovation	Country	Area	Initial Stage	Developing Stage	Outcome-Generating Stage
1 (1)	Community-based marine tourism	Indonesia	Gorontalo	In: 8: Employment opportunity options outside fishing	In: 33: Increased awareness of coral conservation	Out: 26: Promote village-based tourism
				All: 13: Start of snorkeling and diving excursions	In: 50: Promoting conservation tourism
2 (2)	Improving the quality of cacao raw materials and high value-added distribution	Indonesia	Polewali	In: 51: Formation of Company U and efforts to improve farmers’ capabilities and livelihoods	All: 19: Establishment of a mechanism to purchase fermented cacao at a high price through Company D	Out: 35: Farmers’ options expand
				All: 16: Technology development for high-quality cacao production		All: 16: Technology development for high-quality cacao production
3 (3)	Improving cacao farm management			In: 13: Creating a system to improve farm management and make farmers proud of their farming	All: 21: Strengthening farmer group networks	All: 46: Emergence of farmers with advanced business acumen
				All: 18: Program development for farmer empowerment	Out: 24: Company U functions as a bilateral knowledge translator
4 (4)	Multi-species cultivation on cacao farmland			In: 48: Reviewing the value of multi-species cultivation	All: 14: Company U activities increase the potential value of cacao plantations	All: 32: Improve ecosystem functions and services in the environment surrounding the farm
				All: 14: Company U activities increase the potential value of cacao plantations	All: 32: Improve ecosystem functions and services in the environment surrounding the farm
5 (5)	Collaborative network construction	Indonesia	Jeneberang	In: 51: Networking for poverty alleviation in downstream areas	In: 28: Diverse stakeholders’ participation and collaboration	In: 38: Completion of the manual
6 (7)	Improvement of rice planting method through international exchange	Philippines	Ifugao	In: 24: Efforts to increase income in rice terraces	Out: 13: Start of trials in some of the innovator’s terraced rice fields	All: 17: Expansion of the farmer network
7 (9)	Diversification of production activities of natural rubber plantations	Thailand	Rayon	In: 6: Capital accumulation	All: 102: Initiatives to stabilize incomes begin	All: 27: Realization of modern farm management
					Out: 12: Facility development for processing (smoking)	All: 102: Initiatives to stabilize incomes begin
8 (10)	Reorganization and usage of traditional salt making techniques	Fiji	Wai	All: 11: Collaboration across generations aimed at reviving traditional culture	In: 19: Attract tourists to gain income by selling salt	All: 25: Male participation in firewood collection, water transportation, cleaning, etc.
					Out: 21: The salt production committee reorganized under a male chairperson	All: 11: Collaboration across generations aimed at reviving traditional culture
9 (11)	Small-scale aquaculture and multi-species cultivation	Malawi	Nkhotakota	In: 10: Practices in multi-species cultivation and aquaculture based on his own ideas	All: 32: Improvement of aquaculture pond management techniques	All: 32: Improvement of aquaculture pond management techniques
					All: 18: Repeat trial and error	All: 34: Achieving a diversified management
10 (13)	Seasonal fishing bans around Mbenji Island by traditional chiefs and communities		Salima	In: 9: Fishing ban enforcement in the rainy season	In: 26: Increasing trust of community leaders	Out: 32: External actors‘ collaboration (governments, NGOs, etc.)
				All: 29: Local enforcement (governing and controlling)		All: 29: Local enforcement (governing and controlling)
11 (16)	Formation and operation of a tour guide association by local residents		Chembe	All: 34: Movement to increase the guide’s credibility as a guide	Out: 18: Fifty-six guides (all villagers) joined the association	In: 39: Emergence and increase in female guides
						All: 34: Movement to increase the guide’s credibility as a guide
12 (17)	Cape Maclear Cleanup project and recycling center			In: 15: Launch of the Cape Maclear Cleanup project	Out: 46: Establishment of a recycling center	In: 26: Processing and manufacturing of recycled materials
					In: 19: Fostering awareness of garbage as a resource	Out: 28: Generation of profit by selling recycled products
					All: 20: Collaborative works on material processing with village technicians
13 (18)	Organic farming by small-scale irrigation linked to educational activities (Sinthana)			In: 7: Launch of the Sinthana project by Chembe villagers (2012-)	All: 24: Introduce and practice organic farming for safe food for kids	All: 23: Lodges increased purchasing of Sinthana vegetables and chickens
						All: 24: Introduce and practice organic farming for safe food for kids
14 (19)	Efforts by fishers to create satoumi-type fishing grounds (chirundu)			In: 7: Activities mobilized	Out: 16: Repeated dialogue among BVC, knowledge translators, and scientists	In: 35: Provision of new fish habitat-improved resource status
				In: 13: Idea to place a chirundu near the village	Out: 51: Chirundu site decided on the sand bottom between the village and PA	Out: 39: Success of artificial chirundu
					All: 22: Construction of chirundu (April)	All: 22: Construction of chirundu (April)
15 (20)	The cultivation and sale of pickled salad melons requiring small amounts of irrigation water	Turkey	Karapinar	In: 35: Recognition of serious groundwater depletion	In: 8: Focus on melon for pickling, a traditional ingredient	In: 23: High income, even with low production
				In: 5: The need for agriculture less dependent on groundwater	Out: 16: Started growing melons for pickles

Ten LPs (all) had some functions in the initial or developing stage and performed a different function in another subsequent stage (shadowed cells in Table 1 and number 29 in Figure 2). Thus, the cumulative total of LPs in Table 1 and subsequent analyses is 73: 22 LPs in the initial stage, 26 in the developing stage, and 25 in the outcome-generating stage. Of the 10 LPs (all) that performed multiple functions, 9 were involved in the achievement of outcomes in the outcome-generating stage.

Figure 3 represents the numbers of the three types of LPs per stage. The LP (in) was significantly more common in the initial stage, the LP (out) in the developing stage, and the LP (all) in the outcome-generating stage, compared to the other stages (χ² (4) = 19.62, p < 0.01).

3.2. Contribution of LPs to Human Well-Being

Figure 4 shows the components of well-being that triggered or motivated the innovation and aspects of human well-being that improved outcomes, based on the relationship between the LPs and the four indices of human well-being for each LP in an example of a causal network showing the emergence process of autonomous innovation. The LP (in) at the initial stage (green, number 7) was related to all four well-being indicators. All aspects of human well-being were considered to have motivated or triggered this innovation. The LP (all) at the development stage (red, number 24) and the outcome-generating stage were related to “basic materials for a good life” and “health” in the developing stage, indicating that these were the motivation and triggers for this autonomous innovation. In the outcome-generating stage, the same LP (all) (blue, number 24) was related to “good social relations” in addition to “basic materials for a good life” and “health”, which indicated that outcomes related to “basic materials for a good life”, “health”, and “good social relations” were promoted in parallel. The LP (all) at the outcome-generating stage (blue, number 23) also indicated that “basic materials for a good life” and “good social relations” were achieved in parallel.

Figure 4. An example of the relationship between leverage points and indices of human well-being in a causal network (Innovation No. 13: Organic farming by small-scale irrigation linked to educational activities (Sinthana)).

The indices of human well-being (“basic materials for a good life”, “safety”, “health”, and “good social relations”) are represented by the shapes of the symbols and the LP stages are represented by the colors of the symbols. See the caption of Figure 2 for more details of the causal network diagram.

We examined the relationship of 73 LPs with human well-being indices (Table 2). One LP was related to one or more indices of human well-being. Therefore, the cumulative number of correspondences between LPs and well-being indices was 131. LPs were associated with “basic materials for a good life”, “safety”, and “good social relations” at all stages. Few LPs were associated with “health”. A comparison of the number of indices of human well-being addressed by each of the three types of LPs showed no particular trend.

Table 2. Correspondence between LPs and indices of human well-being for each stage. The innovation numbers in the leftmost column are the same as in Table 1. Shadowed cells are LPs (all) performing different functions in different stages. BM: basic materials for a good life, SA: safety, HE: health, and GR: good social relations. Titles of LPs are not shown in this table, as they are shown in Table 1.

No.	Initial Stage		Developing Stage		Outcome-Generating Stage
	LPs	Indices of Human Well-Being: Content of Correspondence	LPs	Indices of Human Well-Being: Content of Correspondence	LPs	Indices of Human Well-Being: Content of Correspondence
1 (1)	In: 8	BM: Need for a different means of livelihood than fishing	In: 33	SA: Initiatives to reduce the burden on coral reefs through guidance by dive masters as the number of tourists increases	Out: 26	BM: Improving livelihoods through villager-led tourism SA: Increased livelihood options through villag er-led tourism
	All: 13	BM: Using a new option of livelihood: diving tourism GR: Youth participation in diving tourism	In: 50	SA: Promotion of coral reef conservation through tourism by demarcating sea areas following zoning by the village GR: Expand collaboration with prefectures and villages for coral reef conservation
2 (2)	In: 51	BM: Efforts to improve farmers’ livelihoods GR: Established relationship with the Japanese chocolate maker (Company D)	All: 19	BM: Acquisition of fermentation technology and purchase of high price fermented cacao by Company D GR: Strengthening relationships with farmers and Company D through value-added distribution incentives	Out: 35	BM: Increased revenue through value-added distribution SA: The options with or without fermentation stabilize livelihoods and improve the capacity of farmers
	All: 16	SA: Control of chemical fertilizers and chemicals GR: Redevelopment of fermentation technology as required by Company D			All: 16	BM: Improvement of farmers’ pride and pride in producing and selling high-quality cacao through improved farm management with techniques for reducing chemicals
3 (3)	In: 13	BM: Improving farm management GR: Need to network with small farmers and distributors	All: 21	BM: Providing profitable cacao cultivation technology SA: Creation of job opportunities and the participation of young people GR: Establishment of a system to transmit superior cultivation techniques and management methods to farmers.	All: 46	BM: Increased options for cacao sales channels; the success of modern farm management SA: Stabilization through successful modern farm management
	All: 18	BM: Improve profitability in the international markets SA: Address unstable cacao cultivation GR: Deepen relationships with major distributors and form farmer groups	Out: 24	BM: Emergence of advanced farmers and stabilization of management, production of high-quality cacao SA: UTZ certification and terraced farmland management to prevent erosion and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and chemicals GR: Strengthen the relationship with Company D
4 (4)	In: 48	SA: Efforts to prevent soil degradation, recognition of the possibility of cultivating multiple crop species	All: 14	BM: Diversified sources of income realized SA: Stabilization of cacao production GR: Multi-species cultivation spreading to many farmers and realization of his/her own innovations	All: 32	SA: Improvement of ecosystem functions and services, and farmers’ resilience
	All: 14	BM: Diversified sources of income through the cultivation of profitable crops SA: Stabilization of cacao production	All: 32	BM: Clear increase in income compared with monoculture farmers SA: Prevention of soil degradation
5 (5)	In: 51	GR: Strengthening the network with the poorest farmers at the end of the irrigation channels by leveraging the network between NGOs and farmers that already existed	In: 28	GR: Strengthening water users’ associations and creating mechanisms to reflect farmers’ voices through the participation of diverse stakeholders	In: 38	BM: Improved livelihoods by bringing water to farmers at the end of the irrigation channel SA: Provision of irrigation water to terminal farmers through an agreed scheduling mechanism for the opening and closing of water gates GR: Expanding collaboration networks through interaction and dialogue among diverse stakeholders
6 (7)	In: 24	GR: Encountering diverse people through international exchange programs and an attitude of incorporating outside opinions	Out: 13	BM: Efforts to increase yields by introducing efficient technologies	All: 17	BM: Potential for increased rice yield and income GR: Emergence of neighboring farmers to help with trials
7 (9)	In: 6	BM: Seed production and sales by women tappers, capital accumulation, and expansion of farming scale SA: Improvement of barren land through banana production	All: 102	BM: Improving the lives of highly skilled employees in natural rubber plantations	All: 27	BM: Expansion of income sources through diversified managementSA: Improvement of tree conditions and latex production in the dry season GR: Direct trade with compression mills, strengthening networks by hiring small farmers in the vicinity
			Out: 12	BM: Expanding natural rubber production and diversifying production crops to secure income during the dry season	All: 102	BM: Further stabilization of management
8 (10)	All: 11	GR: A village-wide effort to revive salt production begins, led by a women’s group that transcends generations	In: 19	BM: Generating a source of income through the sale of salt HE: Use of salt by villagers and medical institutions as a healthy food GR: Creating opportunities for young members who have access to the internet	All: 25	SA: Improvement of salt mills and the development of various technologies to stabilize production and sales and reduce the burden on mangrove forests GR: Improving the sustainability of salt production by strengthening networks and improving governance
			Out: 21	BM: Potential for increased sales and improved livelihoods GR: Male chairmanship and cooperation with travel agents and village decision-making bodies.	All: 11	GR: Reinforcing pride and attachment to traditional salt production among the people
9 (11)	In: 10	The innovator wanted to practice what he learned in middle school at the age of 14 (something new that no one else was doing); not specifically addressed in the indices of human well-being	All: 32	BM: Enjoyment of increased harvest and improved quality (and consequently increased revenue) because of improved technology	All: 32	BM: Various innovations aimed at improving production efficiency and profitability (economies of scale, dry-season production, acquisition of smoking techniques, etc.)
			All: 18	BM: Experimenting with methods for producing agricultural and fishery products, with the vision of increased revenues	All: 34	SA: Stable earnings throughout the year GR: Cooperation and mutual learning with neighboring farmers
10 (13)	In: 9	SA: Ensuring the safety of fishers from thunderstorms during the rainy season and securing livelihood options in the rainy season (the busy farming season)	In: 26	BM: Improved stock status due to a successful seasonal fishing ban SA: Safety from thunderstorms, stabilization of resources GR: Increased awareness of social ties and pride in the community because of the fishing ban	Out: 32	GR: Promoting the inflow and dissemination of scientific knowledge by strengthening ties outside of the region
	All: 29	GR: Awareness of social ties in the community around a trusted chief			All: 29	SA: Improvement of resource management systems to stabilize catches and consideration for subsistence fishing GR: Further strengthen the awareness of social ties by confirming the validity of the fishing ban
11 (16)	All: 34	GR: Efforts to organize tour guides and build trust with lodges	Out: 18	BM: Income security SA: Income stability and mutual aid mechanisms GR: Formation of an association and support from the lodge	In: 39	BM: Establish tour guiding as a proper profession GR: Deepen relationships with lodges as trusted guides
					All: 34	BM: Income improved with the creation of a profession for women SA: Establishment of a legitimate profession for women GR: Involvement of women as the association members
12 (17)	In: 15	GR: Efforts based on the relationship between the lodge and the tour guide association	Out: 46	BM: Employment for vulnerable people created HE: Efforts to improve sanitation through garbage collection	In: 26	BM: Improve livelihoods by developing salable products GR: Generation and expansion of connections among technicians
			In: 19	BM: Opportunity to be used as a resource by vulnerable groups	Out: 28	BM: Profit generation through sales GR: Improved social relations through fair profit sharing
			All: 20	BM: Creation of new livelihoods GR: Building a network of people with technology, including vulnerable groups
13 (18)	In: 7	BM: Improving profitability through small-scale irrigation SA: Stability of profitability (confidence in donors) HE: Improve the nutritional situation of children GR: Need for social and early childhood education opportunities	All: 24	BM: Progress in efforts to ensure profitability HE: Products used for children’s school lunches	All: 23	BM: Expanding production and purchasing GR: Networking with lodges and individual farmers
					All: 24	BM: Improving profitability through the production of cheap and tasty vegetables HE: Improving children’s nutritional status with safe vegetables and eggs GR: Increased awareness of the public value of Sinthana’s activities
14 (19)	In: 7	BM, SA: Increased motivation to manage resources GR: Diverse stakeholder participation	Out: 16	GR: Relationship between researchers, translators, and BVC deepened and a foundation for new practices established	In: 35	BM, SA: Upwelling current generation and providing hiding places to produce an attracting effect and improve/stabilize fish catches.
	In: 13	BM: Secure fishing grounds near villages SA: Support subsistence fishing for vulnerable people	Out: 51	GR: Improved relationship with the National Park Office	Out: 39	BM: Provide stable habitat in the long term GR: Expand the number of people who participate and improve the motivation among BVC members
			All: 22	BM, SA: Installation of chirundu to improve and stabilize fish catches by generating an upwelling current and providing hiding places to attract fishes	All: 22	BM, SA: Mechanisms were established to support subsistence fishing for vulnerable people
15 (20)	In: 35	GR: Shared awareness among the government, researchers, and some farmers	In: 8	BM: Production of high value-added pickle melons that can be harvested early and are in high demand	In: 23	BM: Improving producers’ livelihoods by growing high value-added melons for pickles and exporting them through cooperatives SA: Reduction in groundwater load
	In: 5	BM: Improve the livelihoods of small farmers who cannot afford modern irrigation SA: Prepare a production base for small farmers during severe groundwater depletion	Out: 16	BM: Increased income from pickle melons with high prices and demands GR: Exporting through vendors met at street sales, forming a cooperative to secure production and expand exports

Figure 5 compares LPs and corresponding indices of human well-being by stages. In all stages, “basic materials for a good life” and “good social relations” were significantly higher than the “safety” and “health” indices of human well-being (initial stage: χ²(3) = 10.44, p < 0.01, developing stage: χ²(3) = 14.87, p < 0.01, outcome-generated stage: χ²(3) = 15.00, p < 0.01). There was no significant difference in the frequency of the four human well-being indices among the three LP stages and the three types of LPs (χ²(6) = 3.70, n.s.).

Figure 5. Number of LPs corresponding to each human well-being index per stage.

3.3. Impact of the LP on the Transformation of Social-Ecological Systems

Figure 6 illustrates the causal network diagram showing the emergence processes of an autonomous innovation and the enabler category in which the LPs are considered to have enhanced their functions. The LP (all) at the initial stage (green, number 11) facilitated collective actions and built new linkages. The LP (in) at the developing stage (red, number 19) promoted the visualization of value, and the LP (out) at the developing stage (red, number 21) created new linkages. The LP (all) at the outcome-generating stage (blue, number 11) visualized values and the LP (all) (blue, number 25) encouraged the collective actions that led to the transformation of the social-ecological system.

Figure 6. An example of the relationship between leverage points (LPs) and enabler categories in the causal network (Innovation No. 8: Reorganization and usage of traditional salt making).

The enabler categories (“facilitate collective actions”, “identify and visualize values”, “provide options and opportunities”, “build new linkages”, and “encourage multiple translators”) are represented by the shapes of the symbols and the LP stages are represented by the colors of the symbols. See the caption of Figure 2 for more details of the causal network diagram.

Regarding 73 LPs, we identified 125 cases of relations to enabler categories (Table 3). At every stage, LPs contributed to “facilitate collective actions”, “identify and visualize values”, “provide options and opportunities”, and “build new linkages”, while there were very few contributions to “encourage multiple translators and viewpoints”. This can be attributed to the fact that the perspective of bilateral knowledge translation [28] was not commonly shared among both innovators and collaborating scientists.

Table 3. Enabler categories in which the LPs of each stage have enhanced their functions. The innovation numbers in the leftmost column are the same as in Table 1. Shadowed cells are LPs (all) performing different functions at different stages. AC: facilitate collective actions, VA: identify and visualize, LI: build new linkages, OP: provide options and opportunities, and TR: encourage multiple translators and viewpoints. Titles of LPs are not shown in this table, as they are shown in Table 1.

No.	Initial Stage		Developing Stage		Outcome-Generating Stage
	LPs	Enabler Category: Content of Correspondence	LPs	Enabler Category: Content of Correspondence	LPs	Enabler Category: Content of Correspondence
1 (1)	In: 8	OP: New livelihood options for tourism using coral reefs	In: 33	VA: The value of low-impact tourism that contributes to stopping the degradation of the coral reef environment	Out: 26	VA: The value of tourism practices devised by the villagers themselves OP: Villager-driven coral reef-friendly tourism as a livelihood option
	All: 13	AC: Collective action of starting a coral reef tourism that can attract international tourists	In: 50	LI: New linkages with conservation policies at the prefectural and village levels OP: An option for tourism uses by dividing the sea area
2 (2)	In: 51	AC: Collective action of Company U and farmers to improve their livelihoods LI: Strengthening ties between Company U, farmers, and foreign chocolate makers focused on improving farmers’ livelihoods	All: 19	VA: The added value for high quality-fermented cacao TR: Knowledge translation by Company U to connect farmers and foreign companies	Out: 35	OP: The option of choosing to ferment or not depending on the conditions
	All: 16	OP: New technology for producing high-quality cacao through fermentation and the option of farm management techniques such as chemical fertilizer and chemical control			All: 16	VA: The value of farmers’ pride in producing high-quality cacao through controlled farm management with reduced chemicals
3 (3)	In: 13	AC: Collective action with equal partnerships between Company U and farmers LI: New connection of working with international chocolate makers	All: 21	VA: The value of good cultivation techniques and management practices being developed and disseminated by farmers.	All: 46	VA: The value of cacao cultivation as a business and the importance of modern management OP: New sales channel options for farmers for high-quality cacao
	All: 18	LI: New connections between farmer groups and field coordinator participation OP: Better cacao cultivation techniques as an option and new job opportunities	Out: 24	VA: The emergence of advanced farmers and the value of increased pride in being a farmer LI: New linkages strengthening farmer networks and maturing relationships with chocolate makersTR: Strengthening ties between farmers and foreign chocolate makers focusing on improving the livelihoods of cacao farmers
4 (4)	In: 48	VA: The value of organic farming for preventing soil degradation and growing diverse crops OP: Multi-species alternatives to monoculture at cacao plantations	All: 14	VA: The value of securing and stabilizing incomes through diversified cultivation LI: New connections among farmers through the spread of multi-species cultivation OP: Various production options, such as the introduction of new varieties and goat rearing, and production methods that suit each farmer’s requirements	All: 32	VA: The value of ecosystem functions and the improvement of resilience through multi-species cultivation
	All: 14	AC: Collective action of activating multi-species cultivation by Company U	All: 32	OP: Cost reduction and income increase through multi-species cultivation and prevention of soil degradation
5 (5)	In: 51	AC: Collective action of construction and maintenance of tertiary channels using a network VA: The value of equitable upstream and downstream water distribution and the importance of networking	In: 28	AC: Collective action of creating a mechanism to bring water to the most downstream farmers LI: New linkages of networks that can strengthen water users’ associations and allow farmers’ voices to be heard in decision-making	In: 38	VA: The value of improving farmers’ livelihoods by making rice cultivation possible during the dry season in the most downstream areas OP: Options for consensus building for equitable water distribution between upstream and downstream farmers and stakeholders by using the manual TR: Knowledge translations to deliver water to the end of irrigation channels by translators inside and outside the region
6 (7)	In: 24	LI: New connections of meeting outside farmers, researchers, etc. through international exchange programs OP: New ideas for terraced rice field usage options	Out: 13	OP: Expanded opportunities to experiment with new technologies and various options for ingenuity	All: 17	VA: The value of visualizing potential increases in rice yield and income in rice terraces LI: New connections in the form of participation by surrounding farmers
7 (9)	In: 6	OP: Land reform option for natural rubber plantation development	All: 102	OP: Diversification options such as apartment management and latex production during the dry season	All: 27	VA: The value of modern management, including stabilization of income during the dry season through diversified cultivation and high-quality rubber production LI: New connections through direct business with compression plants
			Out: 12	OP: Options for multi-species cultivation as natural rubber production created by facility development	All: 102	VA: The value of further stabilizing income through diversified management and advanced multi-species cultivation
8 (10)	All: 11	AC: Collective action by women’s groups to resume salt production and to devise ways to use waste products, traditional hand-woven baskets, the internet, etc. LI: New connections of young members’ participation	In: 19	VA: The value of cash income produced from selling salt as a health food using traditional salt making methods	All: 25	AC: Collective action under a new male leader to improve various techniques, dig new wells, keep books, and manage sales
			Out: 21	LI: New linkages of cooperation of village decision-making bodies and male chairpersons joining in activities by women’s groups	All: 11	VA: Fostering pride and attachment to traditional culture through the revival of salt production
9 (11)	In: 10	VA: The value of being able to use abundant water for multi-species cultivation and small-scale aquaculture OP: Option of creating synergies between irrigated agriculture and aquaculture	All: 32	VA: The value of well-managed aquaculture ponds OP: Diverse management options	All: 32	OP: Options of dry season farming, seafood processing, and marketing
			All: 18	OP: Options for crops and aquaculture fish species, and options for aquaculture pond management	All: 34	VA: The value of year-round income stability LI: Strengthening ties with surrounding farmers for mutual learning
10 (13)	In: 9	AC: The community united in the action of a seasonal ban on fishingVA: The value of safety in the lives of fishers OP: The option to prohibit fishing during the rainy season and focus on farming	In: 26	VA: The value of fishing bans as an effective safety measure that enhances community pride and solidarity	Out: 32	LI: New connections between the government, NGOs, and others to focus attention and collaboration on local practices TR: Circulation of knowledge and technology within and outside the region through various knowledge translators
	All: 29	OP: The possibility of a fishing ban during the rainy season			All: 29	AC: Collective action by several committees for resource management VA: The value of trusted leadership in harmony with traditional knowledge OP: Options for effective and diverse resource management approaches
11 (16)	All: 34	AC: Collective action to form a tour guide association LI: New connections in the formation of the association and building trust with lodges	Out: 18	AC: Collective action of joining the association OP: Options of tour guiding as a legitimate profession LI: Building and improving new connections among members, such as mutual aid schemes	In: 39	VA: The value of pride and fulfillment to be a tour guide, as well as including women, as a legitimate profession OP: Options for women to participate in the profession LI: New connections in women’s participation
					All: 34	VA: The value of being a tour guide as a legitimate profession LI: Connections that build trust with people inside and outside the association
12 (17)	In: 15	AC: Collective action of starting a project	Out: 46	OP: The creation of new jobs and the expansion of options/opportunities for waste collection	In: 26	VA: The value of developing products that can be sold AC: The collective action of commercialization involving diverse people
			In: 19	VA: The value of garbage as a resource for recycling products	Out: 28	VA: The new value of generating a tangible profit from sales and equitable profit sharing OP: New options/opportunities through the creation of a commercialization and sales mechanism
			All: 20	LI: New connections with people with skills in product development and sales OP: New use of local technology that already exists in the village
13 (18)	In: 7	AC: The collective action of starting a project VA: The value of the importance of early childhood education OP: Various educational opportunities (early childhood education, social education, etc.)	All: 24	AC: The collective action of small-scale irrigation and organic farming in collaboration with farmers VA: The visualization and increased awareness of the value of improving the nutritional status of children in pre-school education OP: Organic high-quality vegetable production as an option	All: 23	LI: Networks with organic farmers and new connections to provide organic vegetables to the lodges VA: The new value of fresh and safe vegetables in the village, and the value of supporting early childhood education by buying vegetables OP: Option/opportunity for lodges and villagers to support early childhood education by purchasing organic vegetables
					All: 24	VA: The value of organic and safe vegetable production
14 (19)	In: 7	AC: Collective action for resource management and enhancement by BVC	Out: 16	LI: New connections with translators and scientists inside and outside the region OP: Options of specific chirundu design TR: Local knowledge and scientific knowledge combined through knowledge translators	In: 35	VA: Creation of value for biodiversity and resources by satoumi-like practices
	In: 13	VA: Visualization of the value of an idea by a woman leader to have fishing grounds near the village	Out: 51	OP: Chirundu location options consistent with protected areas LI: Improved relationships with the National Park Office	Out: 39	VA: The value of the effectiveness of the mechanism called “chirundu” LI: New connections in terms of the increased willingness of other villagers to participate OP: Resource enhancement options, and the option of subsistence fishing for the vulnerable
			All: 22	AC: Action of constructing chirundu in collaboration between Madothi BVC and scientists/translators	All: 22	VA: The value of increased catches by providing habitats OP: Various options for the use of chirundu, including subsistence fishing
15 (20)	In: 35	VA: The value of the importance of preventing groundwater depletion	In: 8	OP: The option of pickle melon, an old locally grown product	In: 23	VA: The value of small irrigation and early harvesting which allows for high returns in a short time and contributes to groundwater conservationOP: Option to export through cooperatives even if individual production is small
	In: 5	OP: High-value agricultural options with less dependence on groundwater	Out: 16	AC: Collective action of growing melons for pickles by multiple farmers in the region LI: New connections from the formation of melon farmers association for export OP: Exporting as a new market option

Figure 7 compares the number of enabler categories that were enhanced by the LPs at different stages. Among the enabler categories, “facilitate collective actions” was significantly more common in the initial stage than in the other stages, and “identify and visualize values” was significantly more common in the outcome-generating stage than in the other stages (χ²(8) = 16.12, p < 0.05). A few LPs that strengthened the function of “encourage multiple translators” appeared in the developing stage and beyond. Among the three types of LPs, “encourage multiple translators” was significantly more common in the LP (out) (χ²(8) = 13.65, p < 0.05).

Figure 7. Number of LPs and corresponding enabler categories per stage.

4. Discussion

4.1. Functions of the Three Types of LPs in the Emergence Processes of Autonomous Innovations

The LP (in) was significantly more common in the initial stage, the LP (out) in the developing stage and the LP (all) in the outcome-generating stage, than in the other stages, respectively (Figure 3). In the initial stage, the LP (in) integrates various components into the system, while the LP (out) creates new movements in the developing stage. The LP (all) integrates these outcomes in the outcome-generating stage. It is important for LPs with these different functions to play their respective roles in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations. Previous discussions on LPs have mainly focused on the magnitude of the impact of LPs, with specific characteristics on the system as a whole, as seen in Meadows’ 12 leverage points [13,14,15,16,31,32,33]. In contrast, our finding that at least two, and in most cases three, types of LPs appeared in all innovations suggests a mechanism whereby LPs with different characteristics function in a multi-layered and interrelated manner in the emergence processes of innovations to promote the transformation of the social-ecological system as a whole [19,27]. These results will make a significant contribution to the research of autonomous innovations emerging among socially vulnerable sectors in developing countries [34,35,36].

All 10 LPs (all) had some functions in the initial or developing stage, and most of them also functioned differently in the outcome-generating stage (Table 1). LPs (all) in the outcome-generating stage often appear at the end of the feedback loop, as shown in Figure 2. The LP (all) has two functions: integrating various components and creating new movements. Therefore, these LPs (all) are involved in the emergence and promotion of autonomous innovations in the early stages and play a role in producing outcomes in the final phase of the process. The existence of LPs with such dual functions and their multi-layered linkages with various other LPs is thought to play a particularly important role in the transformation of social-ecological systems. These LPs (all) are likely to represent “deep” LPs that previous studies suggested to produce fundamental impacts on the complex systems with strong interventions [14,15,16]. Takemura et al. (in press) also indicated that the interventions on the initial conditions and remaining challenges were relatively easy to influence the functions of LPs [27]. To strengthen the functions of LPs (all) as the “deep” LPs, we suggest the possibility of exerting influence on the initial conditions and remaining challenges connected to LPs (all) to promote the social-ecological transformation.

4.2. Parallel Contributions to Multiple Aspects of Human Well-Being

Among the four indices of human well-being, “basic materials for a good life” and “good social relations” were significantly abundant at all stages of LPs. “Safety” (including physical safety and improvement of resilience) was also associated with LPs at all stages in many autonomous innovations. We hypothesized that the indices of human well-being associated with LPs in the initial and developing stages referred to the most important and direct motivations and triggers of autonomous innovation, while the indices of human well-being associated with LPs in the developing and outcome-generating stages referred to the aspects of human well-being that have been enhanced by autonomous innovations. Therefore, these indices of human well-being are deemed to be the motivation and impetus for the emergence of innovations, as well as the eventual achievement. It is important for the transformation of social-ecological systems that different LPs are interlinked with different aspects of human well-being throughout the emergence processes of innovations and that various aspects of human well-being are improved in parallel [14,15,16,17,18,19]. Previous studies in systems thinking have pointed to the importance of multiple positive feedback loops producing diverse outcomes for overall system transformations [22,24]. The results of this study indicate the possibility that a single feedback loop could simultaneously produce outcomes to improve multiple human well-being indicators. This result provides a new perspective on transformation studies in systems thinking.

Although few, there were cases in which LPs related to “health”, a highly public indicator of human well-being, played an important role. For example, in the case of autonomous innovation shown in Figure 4 (Table 2, No. 13), all four human well-being indices, including “health” (the need to improve the nutritional status of children), were the motivation for the innovation. In the developing stage, this innovation produced outcomes of the promotion of activities aimed at improving “basic materials for a good life” (improving the production of organic agriculture) and “health” (improving the health of children). In the outcome-generating stage, “good social relations” (collaborations between farmers and tourist lodges) were also achieved. Here, various motivations, including highly public child nutrition improvement, generated by-products of another public value: extensive collaboration between farmers and tourist lodges. In Innovation No. 12 (Table 2), “good social relations” (between the lodge and the tour guide association) provided the foundation for the innovation, which was triggered by “health” (improved sanitation) as the motivation, and produced a public value of “good social relations” (networking of people with skills) as the outcome. The emergence of collective actions from the highly public motive of improving sanitation at the village level led to the creation of by-products with another highly public outcome of building a network of diverse people in the village, including vulnerable groups. Tajima et al. (2022) pointed out that the process of collective actions, emerging from motivations closer to the everyday life of people to produce outcomes of high public value as by-products, is an important enabler of the emergence of autonomous innovations [19]. This study revealed another pathway where autonomous innovation, initiated from motivation with a highly public value in the first place, generated additional by-products that have another highly public value. The parallel production of outcomes with high public values related to multiple indices of human well-being would also facilitate the transformation of the social-ecological system. The importance of considering the by-products in the process of social-ecological transformation has also been suggested in the studies of resilience planning [37] and fisheries resource management [38]. Our findings have a strong implication for these arguments.

4.3. Contribution of LPs to the Transformation of Social-Ecological Systems through the Enabler Categories

Sato et al. (2018) proposed five enabler categories as mechanisms for the knowledge-based transformation of social-ecological systems [28]. We analyzed the relationship between LPs and the five enabler categories to understand the mechanisms of the contribution of different types of LPs to contribute to transformation. LPs associated with the five enabler categories functioned in almost all stages of innovation. In the emergence processes of autonomous innovations, it is highly likely that the five enabler categories interact with each other to produce various collective actions. LPs, as a whole, promote the dynamic transformation of a social-ecological system through these collective actions [28]. Among the enabler categories, “facilitate collective actions” were significantly more frequent in the initial stage than in the other stages. The creation of new and unprecedented actions was apparently important in the initial stage. Previous studies indicated that collective actions often trigger the transformation of social-ecological systems [39]. In the developing stage, “encourage multiple translators” was counted for the first time, although the number of cases was small. The function of the “encourage multiple translators” category was thought to be mainly carried out by LPs (out). The bilateral knowledge translation that bridges gaps between diverse actors effectively promotes collaboration through the LP (out) in the developing stage. In the outcome-generating stage, the “identify and visualize values” category was significantly more frequent. This suggests that the new values create or expand outcomes of the innovations and dynamically stimulate the creation of new directions.

Tajima et al. (2022) found that the creation of by-products through collective actions and the proactive attitude of innovators were important enablers for the emergence of innovations [19]. The process of the creation of by-products includes “facilitate collective actions” and “identify and visualize values” among the enabler categories. The innovator’s proactive attitude is the foundation of all five enabler categories, but it can be the driving force behind new and unprecedented collective actions in the initial stage when LPs related to the “facilitate collective actions” category are functioning. In the outcome-generating stage, when LPs associated with the “identify and visualize values” category play a role, proactive attitudes can support the creation or expansion of new values and outcomes. In order to “build new linkages” and “provide options and opportunities” to function as enablers in all stages, a proactive attitude is essential for innovators to effectively use these linkages and opportunities.

According to Tajima et al. (2022), the emphasis on public values, self-sustained and adaptive collective action, and the improvement of the supporting services, one of the four ecosystem services [3] were closely related to the emergence of synergies in integrated natural resource management [19]. Autonomy and adaptiveness are particularly important when new collective actions are generated in the initial stage and when new values are visualized in the outcome-generating stage to promote the emergence of synergies. The emphasis on public values and the improvement of supporting services are relevant to all five enabler categories because these provide the foundations for the sustainability of diverse resources and the enhancement of human well-being. The “encourage multiple translators” category and related LPs have important functions, especially in the developing stage when collective actions incorporate and visualize various public values, including supporting services, to facilitate the creation of further outcomes of innovations and the synergies for integrated resource management. Supporting services have been postulated as the fundamental component of diverse ecosystem services, including provisional services, to provide various natural resources [3,4]. It is highly likely that the improvement of supporting services can open a window for the emergence of synergies among multiple resource management practices.

The empirical enablers derived by Tajima et al. (2022) from a qualitative analysis of diverse autonomous innovations [19] and the five enabler category hypotheses [28] were highly consistent. This study also identified the conditions and mechanisms for the five enabler categories and associated LPs to function effectively in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations. The analysis of LPs in this study revealed the importance of the multi-layered functioning of the various enabler categories and LPs, significantly advancing our understanding of the transformation mechanisms of social-ecological systems.

5. Conclusions

The results of this study indicate that the concept of leverage points (LPs) is useful for understanding the mechanisms of transformation of social-ecological systems through autonomous innovations, as indicated previously [13,26,32]. The extraction of three types of LPs by network analysis and a detailed analysis of their functions revealed that different types of LPs function in different stages of the emergence processes of autonomous innovations. We found that the LP (in) integrates diverse components into the system, the LP (out) creates new movements, and the LP (all) integrates their outcomes. We also found that the LP (all) is an important LP involved in both the emergence of innovations and the creation of outcomes of autonomous innovations. Different types of LPs function in a multi-layered and interrelated manner in the emergence of innovations, which promote the transformation of the social-ecological systems in aggregate. These LPs are intricately linked to diverse aspects of human well-being, and the multi-layered linkage of LPs promotes the enhancement of diverse aspects of human well-being. The LPs associated with the five enabler categories were functional in almost all stages of innovation. The LPs related to the five enabler categories interact with each other to generate diverse collective actions that, as a whole, promote the dynamic transformation of social-ecological systems.

Based on the results in this study, combined with the previous two studies in the series of papers: the qualitative analysis of the emergence of autonomous innovations by Tajima et al. (2022) [19] and the classification of LPs into three types by Takemura et al. (in press) [27], we propose the nine guiding principles below as fundamental conditions and mechanisms to promote the transformation of social-ecological systems facilitated by autonomous innovations.

• Three types of LPs with different functions play synergetic roles in the emergence processes of autonomous innovations at different stages.
• The existence of LPs with dual functions such as the LP (all) and multi-layered linkages with other types of LPs.
• The improvement of various aspects of human well-being in parallel through the interlinked functioning of multiple LPs of different types.
• I. The emergence of new and unprecedented collective actions at the beginning of autonomous innovations; II. The functioning of bilateral knowledge translators that bridge the gaps between diverse actors as collective actions unfold; and III. The new values, outcomes, and new directions that emerge dynamically through diverse functioning LPs.
• Accelerating the creation of by-products through the emergence of collective actions and visualization of new values promoted by LPs.
• Parallel achievements of highly public values, including supporting services through the functions of various LPs, create collective actions from different motivations.
• Proactive attitudes of innovators effectively support LP functions to drive new collective action, deepen and expand people’s connections, provide new options and opportunities, and create new values and outcomes.
• Self-sustained and adaptive collective actions enhance the functions of diverse LPs and create or visualize new values dynamically.
• Effective bilateral knowledge translations incorporate and deploy various public values in collective actions through the functions of LPs.

These guiding principles for the transformation of social-ecological systems open up new horizons for the study of transformation mechanisms of social-ecological systems through autonomous innovations emerging among socially vulnerable people in developing countries. The reality of the interaction of LPs with different characteristics should be clarified through more detailed transdisciplinary research on cases that have produced particularly significant outcomes. Such in-depth case studies would validate and elaborate these guiding principles. Transdisciplinary research should also promote further collection and analyses of autonomous innovations that are creating synergies between different natural resource management practices. Detailed analyses of synergetic implementations of integrated natural resource management will clarify mechanisms that improve various aspects of human well-being and strengthen resilience through transdisciplinary collaborations, leading to a better understanding of new mechanisms of the transformation of social-ecological systems through synergy. The policy implications of facilitating these guiding principles to tackle various societal challenges, including integrated natural resource management, is another important area of research. We hope that the progress of such research will lead to the solution or mitigation of wicked problems toward sustainable futures.