Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Its Mitigation Strategies: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Causes of Climate Change
4. Climate Change and Agriculture
5. Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change
6. Economic Impact of Climate Change and Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies
7. Conclusions and Prospects
- Greenhouse-gas emissions at the global level are raising the CO2 content in the atmosphere, raising the global temperature due to greenhouse effect. However, landmasses have witnessed a higher increase in temperature than oceans.
- The precipitation scenario is altered, and more weather extremes are projected to be witnessed in the near future.
- Climate change is projected to have a deleterious impact on agricultural productivity. The raised temperature and altered precipitation are most likely to offset the positive impact of increased CO2 on plants.
- The warmer and humid climate created due to climate change is creating more horizons for pest infestations.
- Those climate-resilient technologies that are technically sound and economically viable must be framed using an interdisciplinary approach to mitigate climate change.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Crops | Yield Variation | Cause | Model Used | Location | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Corn, soybean, cotton | Yield increase up to 29–32 °C −30–46% by 2100 −63–82% by 2100 | Slowest warming scenario Rapid warming scenario | Hadley III model | United States of America | [73] |
Cotton, sunflower, wheat | −2–9% by 2050 | Medium-high and low GHG emissions | DAYCENT | California’s Central Valley | [74] |
Wheat | −6% | Each degree Celsius increase in world’s mean temperature | Global grid-based, local point-based, statistical regression and field warming experiments | Multiple sites of the world | [75] |
Rice | −3.5% | ||||
Maize | −7.4% | ||||
Soybean | −3.1% by 2100 | ||||
Rainfed corn | −23–34% by 2055 | Increasing temperature and precipitation variability | Probability-based approach | Central Illinois | [76] |
Wheat | −2.1% | Increasing annual temperature | Multimethod analysis with statistical regression | Eastern and northern Europe | [77] |
Barley | −9.1% | ||||
Maize | −24.5% | ||||
Maize | −5.8% | Sub-Saharan Africa | |||
Sugarcane | −3.9% | ||||
Drought-tolerant sorghum Cassava | +0.7% +1.7% | Sub-Saharan Africa | |||
Wheat | −9% | Oceania | |||
Rice | −3.7% | 1 °C increase in mean growing season temperature | Regression, Kendall-tau statistic, Pearson correlation | China | [78] |
Wheat | −10.2% | ||||
Maize Wheat | −10–22% −5–13% if occurred later in season −5–17% and −2–18% if occurred early in season | Increased frequencies of extreme weather events and warming | SALUS crop model | Northern Midwest USA | [79] |
Sorghum | −2.2% | Increasing temperature | County-specific multiple linear regression model | Great Plains of USA | [80] |
Soybean | −0.5% | ||||
Maize | +1.6% |
Location | Crop | Climate-Smart Technology | Enhanced Efficiency | Incremental Economic Benefit | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vietnam | Rice | Site-specific nutrient management | Increased partial factor productivity of nitrogen | 34 US$/ha | [140] |
Philippines | 106 US$/ha | ||||
India | 168 US$/ha | ||||
Sindh, Pakistan | Wheat | Laser land leveling | Saving of 21% irrigation water and reduced irrigation time | INR 23,250/acre | [141] |
Punjab, Pakistan | Rice-wheat cropping system | Zero tillage | Higher water productivity, saving of irrigation water, and higher fertilizer use efficiency | - | [142] |
Bed furrows | |||||
Laser land leveling | |||||
Nyando basin of Kenya | Multiple crops and livestock | Stress-tolerant crop varieties | Increased household income leading to household asset accumulation and investment | Increased HH income by 83% | [143] |
Improved livestock breeds | Increased HH income by 76% | ||||
Semi-arid tropics of India | Groundnut | Drought-tolerant varieties | Increase in yield by 23%, lower variability in yield, increased share of risk benefits in total benefits | 17% reduction in variable cost | [144] |
Karnal, Haryana | Wheat | Zero tillage | Enhanced production by 1.88% and lower cultivation cost | Higher net income | [145] |
Northwestern Indo-Gangetic plains of India | Rice and wheat | Laser land leveling | Reduced irrigation time, increased yield, reduced electricity charges | US$ 143.5/ha/year | [146] |
North western India | Wheat | Zero tillage | Reduced cultivation cost, reduced GHGs emissions, and increased yield | US$ 97.5/ha | [147] |
Upper Gangetic plains | Wheat | Site-specific nutrient management | Increased yield by 29% over farmers fertilizer practices (FFP) | INR 68,980/ha over FFP | [148] |
Indo-Gangetic plains of India | Rice–Wheat cropping system | Improved crop varieties | Increased net returns | INR 15,712/ha/yr | [149] |
Laser land leveling | INR 8119/ha/yr | ||||
Zero-tillage | INR 6951/ha/yr | ||||
India | Rice | Direct-seeded rice | Reduced irrigation and preparation costs | Increase HH income by 16% | [150] |
Tamilnadu, India | Okra | Drip irrigation | Saving of irrigation water and electricity charges, reduced cultivation cost | INR 72,711/acre | [151] |
Punjab, India | DSR–Wheat | Direct-seeded rice | Saving of irrigation, lesser labor requirement | INR 5050–INR 8100/ha over puddled transplanted rice (PTR)–Wheat | [152] |
India | Eggplant | Drip irrigation | Reduced water, electricity and fertilizer use, and increased returns | 54% higher net returns | [153] |
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Malhi, G.S.; Kaur, M.; Kaushik, P. Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Its Mitigation Strategies: A Review. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1318. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031318
Malhi GS, Kaur M, Kaushik P. Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Its Mitigation Strategies: A Review. Sustainability. 2021; 13(3):1318. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031318
Chicago/Turabian StyleMalhi, Gurdeep Singh, Manpreet Kaur, and Prashant Kaushik. 2021. "Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Its Mitigation Strategies: A Review" Sustainability 13, no. 3: 1318. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031318