How Blue Carbon Ecosystems Are Perceived by Local Communities in the Coral Triangle: Comparative and Empirical Examinations in the Philippines and Indonesia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Methods
2.1. Study Sites
2.2. Sampling and Survey Procedures
2.3. Survey Questionnaire
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Profile of the Respondents
3.2. Respondents’ Awareness of Blue Carbon Ecosystem Services
3.3. Respondents’ Utilization of Blue Carbon Ecosystem Services
3.4. Perceived Threats to Blue Carbon Ecosystems
3.5. Perceived Management Strategies to Blue Carbon Ecosystems
4. Discussions
4.1. Awareness and Utilization of Blue Carbon Ecosystems
4.2. Threats to Blue Carbon Ecosystems
4.3. Management Strategies of Blue Carbon Ecosystems
5. Implications to Management of Blue Carbon Ecosystems in the Coral Triangle Region
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Socio-Demographic Profile | Busuanga (n = 98) | Karimunjawa (n = 47) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency | Percentage | Frequency | Percentage | |
Gender | ||||
Male | 50 | 51.0 | 41 | 87.2 |
Female | 48 | 49.0 | 6 | 12.8 |
Age | ||||
20–30 | 20 | 20.4 | 6 | 12.8 |
31–40 | 22 | 22.4 | 14 | 29.8 |
41–50 | 23 | 23.5 | 24 | 51.1 |
51–60 | 19 | 19.4 | 3 | 6.4 |
61 and above | 14 | 14.3 | 0 | 0.0 |
average age | 44 | 40 | ||
Residency | ||||
Less than 5 years | 0 | 0.0 | 2 | 4.3 |
5–10 years | 11 | 11.2 | 3 | 6.4 |
11–15 years | 8 | 8.2 | 4 | 8.5 |
16–20 years | 5 | 5.1 | 11 | 23.4 |
21 years or more | 74 | 75.5 | 27 | 57.4 |
Education | ||||
No formal education | 11 | 11.2 | 0 | 0.0 |
Primary school | 50 | 51.0 | 11 | 23.4 |
Secondary school | 30 | 30.6 | 31 | 66.0 |
Certificate/Diploma | 2 | 2.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Degree holder | 5 | 5.1 | 5 | 10.6 |
Occupation | ||||
Fisherman | 23 | 23.5 | 10 | 21.3 |
Farmer | 5 | 5.1 | 0 | 0.0 |
Salaried individual | 40 | 40.8 | 16 | 34.0 |
Unemployed | 30 | 30.6 | 3 | 6.4 |
Did not answer | 18 | 38.3 |
Ecosystem Services | Busuanga (n = 98) | Karimunjawa (n = 47) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean a | Description | Weighted Mean a | Description | ||
Mangrove ecosystems | Serves as a nursery, feeding, and breeding area of organisms | 2.9 * | moderately aware | 3.7 * | very aware |
Provides habitat for many fauna and flora | 3.4 | moderately aware | 3.7 | very aware | |
Source of food | 3.4 * | moderately aware | 2.6 * | slightly aware | |
Protect coastal areas from storm surges, strong waves | 3.3 * | moderately aware | 4.0 * | very aware | |
Act as a natural buffer to coastal erosion | 2.9 * | moderately aware | 4.0 * | very aware | |
Establish good water quality of the sea | 3.4 | moderately aware | 3.3 | moderately aware | |
Carbon sequestration | 3.3 | moderately aware | 2.9 | moderately aware | |
Recreational and educational services | 3.2 * | moderately aware | 3.8 * | very aware | |
Seagrass ecosystems | Serves as a nursery, feeding, and breeding area of organisms | 2.5 * | slightly aware | 3.7 * | very aware |
Provides habitat for many fauna and flora | 3.0 * | moderately aware | 3.7 * | very aware | |
Source of food | 2.9 ** | moderately aware | 2.5 ** | slightly aware | |
Protect coastal areas from storm surges, strong waves | 2.4 * | slightly aware | 3.4 * | moderately aware | |
Act as a natural buffer to coastal erosion | 2.4 * | slightly aware | 3.5 * | very aware | |
Establish good water quality of the sea | 3.0 | moderately aware | 3.3 | moderately aware | |
Carbon sequestration | 2.7 | moderately aware | 2.7 | moderately aware | |
Recreational and educational services | 3.0 | moderately aware | 3.6 | very aware |
Provisioning and Cultural Services | Busuanga (n = 98) | Karimunjawa (n = 47) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted Mean a | Description | Weighted Mean a | Description | ||
Mangrove ecosystems | Fishing for own consumption | 2.6 * | once a year | 2.1 * | once a year |
Fishing for income source | 2.3 | once a year | 2.0 | once a year | |
Harvesting for firewood materials | 1.7 ** | never use | 1.2 ** | never use | |
Using as a recreational site (bird or bat watching) | 2.2 | once a year | 3.1 | once a month | |
Using as a recreational site (paddling) | 1.5 | never use | 1.9 | once a year | |
Used as a research or educational site | 1.1 | never use | 1.4 | never use | |
Seagrass ecosystems | Fishing for own consumption | 2.1 | once a year | 2.2 | once a year |
Fishing for income source | 1.8 | once a year | 2.0 | once a year | |
Using as a recreational site (bird watching) | 1.3 * | never use | 2.3 * | once a year | |
Using as a recreational site (snorkeling) | 1.3 * | never use | 1.9 * | once a year | |
Used as a research or educational site | 1.1 * | never use | 1.3 * | never use |
Perceived Threats | Busuanga | Karimunjawa | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mangrove Ecosystems | Mode ab | Percentage | Weighted Mean b | Mode ab | Percentage | Weighted Mean b |
Natural disasters | 1 | 48.5 | 3.2 * | 10 | 28.3 | 6.6 * |
Pollution (domestic wastes) | 2 | 34.7 | 2.8 | 2 | 23.9 | 3.7 |
Informal settlers | 6 | 21.4 | 5.1 | 6 | 20.0 | 4.9 |
Increasing population | 5 | 30.6 | 5.7 * | 9 | 28.3 | 6.9 * |
Charcoal making | 4 | 34.7 | 3.6 * | 3 | 21.7 | 5.5 * |
Conversion to nipa and coconut/palm tree plantation | 8 | 35.7 | 7.2 * | 8 | 21.7 | 5.4 * |
Mangrove cutting | 2 | 18.6 | 3.9 | 1 | 26.1 | 4.7 |
Building infrastructures in coastal areas | 7 | 26.8 | 6.5 * | 3 | 17.4 | 5.5 * |
Conversion to residential areas | 9 | 50.5 | 7.7 * | 6 | 23.9 | 5.6 * |
Conversion to fishponds | 10 | 64.9 | 8.9 * | 5 | 19.6 | 5.1 * |
Seagrass ecosystems | ||||||
Natural disasters | 1 | 39.8 | 3.3 * | 10 | 28.3 | 5.9 * |
Pollution (domestic wastes) | 1 | 43.9 | 2.1 * | 1 | 28.3 | 4.1 * |
Increasing population | 3 | 22.4 | 5.5 * | 6 | 21.7 | 6.7 * |
Building infrastructures in coastal areas | 4 | 17.3 | 5.7 | 6 | 21.7 | 5.0 |
Mangrove planting on seagrass beds | 4 | 18.4 | 5.4 | 8 | 17.4 | 5.8 |
Sand mining | 6 | 16.3 | 5.4 | 5 | 23.9 | 5.2 |
Unregulated gleaning | 6 | 21.4 | 6.6 * | 2 | 19.6 | 5.3 * |
Siltation | 6 | 17.3 | 5.5 | 2 | 17.4 | 5.2 |
Beach reclamation | 9 | 33.7 | 7.4 * | 4 | 19.6 | 4.6 * |
Increasing sea surface temperature | 10 | 52.0 | 8.4 * | 10 | 23.9 | 6.0 * |
Perceived Management Strategies | Busuanga | Karimunjawa | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mode ab | Percentage | Weighted Mean b | Mode ab | Percentage | Weighted Mean b | |
Organization strengthening and capacity development | 1 | 30.9 | 2.8 * | 5 | 23.4 | 4.5 * |
Coastal and Fisheries Law Enforcement | 1 | 23.4 | 3.3 | 4 | 25.5 | 3.5 |
Fisheries Management | 4 | 19.1 | 3.5 | 2 | 19.1 | 3.8 |
Habitat management and marine sanctuaries | 3 | 22.3 | 4.1 * | 1 | 23.4 | 3.5 * |
Enterprise, livelihood, and tourism development | 5 | 23.2 | 4.3 | 5 | 23.4 | 4.1 |
Information and educational campaigns | 6 | 29.0 | 4.8 * | 2 | 21.3 | 4.1 * |
Coastal zoning | 6 | 27.7 | 4.1 | 7 | 21.3 | 4.6 |
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Quevedo, J.M.D.; Uchiyama, Y.; Muhamad Lukman, K.; Kohsaka, R. How Blue Carbon Ecosystems Are Perceived by Local Communities in the Coral Triangle: Comparative and Empirical Examinations in the Philippines and Indonesia. Sustainability 2021, 13, 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010127
Quevedo JMD, Uchiyama Y, Muhamad Lukman K, Kohsaka R. How Blue Carbon Ecosystems Are Perceived by Local Communities in the Coral Triangle: Comparative and Empirical Examinations in the Philippines and Indonesia. Sustainability. 2021; 13(1):127. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010127
Chicago/Turabian StyleQuevedo, Jay Mar D., Yuta Uchiyama, Kevin Muhamad Lukman, and Ryo Kohsaka. 2021. "How Blue Carbon Ecosystems Are Perceived by Local Communities in the Coral Triangle: Comparative and Empirical Examinations in the Philippines and Indonesia" Sustainability 13, no. 1: 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010127