How Development Affects News Media Coverage of Earthquakes: Implications for Disaster Risk Reduction in Observing Communities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Taxonomy of Localization
2.2. Development and Localization
3. Materials and Methods
4. Results
4.1. Communalization
4.2. Othering
4.3. Relative Development and Localization
4.4. Summary
5. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Sampling Methods
- Log in to the [Institution] library website using your [Institution] login
- Click on the “Databases” tab
- Search for “LexisNexis Academic”
- Click on the “Source Directory: Find” link at the top right of the screen
- Search for “Hindustan Times” and select this as the source using the “OK–Continue” button
- Search within the publication using the Advanced Search function
- Type “X Country” + “earthquake” for the search
- narrow the results to the date range of the earthquake date to the 1st year anniversary of the earthquake e.g., 10/8/2005–10/8/2006
- sort the results by publication date (oldest first)
- do not include duplicates
- Divide the entire sample by 20 to find X. Starting from the 1st article, select every Xth article until you have your 20 articles.
- If a selected article only fleetingly mentions the earthquake as a peripheral element of another story, please do not use this article and select the next article in its place.
- Log in to the Newspaperarchive.com website using [email address] as the username and “localization” as the password
- Click on the “Advanced Search” tab
- Search within the publication using the Advanced Search function
- Type “X Country” + “earthquake” for the search in the “With all the words” section
- narrow the search to the date range of the earthquake date to the 1st year anniversary of the earthquake e.g., 10/8/2005–10/8/2006
- narrow the search by publication location using the drop down menu–Jamaica → Kingston → Kingston → Kingston Gleaner
- sort the results by publication date (oldest first)
- do not include duplicates
- Divide the entire sample by 20 to find X. Starting from the 1st article, select every Xth article until you have your 20 articles.
- If a selected article only fleetingly mentions the earthquake as a peripheral element of another story, please do not use this article and select the next article in its place.
- Log in to the [Institution] library website using your [Institution] login
- Click on the “Databases” tab
- Search for “Proquest Latin American Newsstand”
- Click on the “Publications” tab
- Search for “El Comercio”
- Click on the newspaper
- Search within the publication using the Advanced Search function
- add “X Country” + “earthquake” to the search [in the appropriate words in Spanish]
- narrow the results to the date range of the earthquake date to the 1st year anniversary of the earthquake e.g., 10/8/2005–10/8/2006
- sort the results by publication date (oldest first)
- do not include duplicates
- Divide the entire sample by 20 to find X. Starting from the 1st article, select every Xth article until you have your 20 articles.
- If a selected article only fleetingly mentions the earthquake as a peripheral element of another story, please do not use this article and select the next article in its place.
- Log in to the [Institution] library website using your [Institution] login
- Click on the “Databases” tab
- Search for “Proquest–Multiple Databases”
- Click on the “News and Newspapers” tab
- Click on the “Publications” tab
- Search for “Dominion Post”
- Click on the link for the newspaper
- Search within the publication using the Advanced Search function
- add “X Country” + “earthquake” to the search
- narrow the results to the date range of the earthquake date to the 1st year anniversary of the earthquake e.g., 10/8/2005–10/8/2006
- sort the results by publication date (oldest first)
- do not include duplicates
- Divide the entire sample by 20 to find X. Starting from the 1st article, select every Xth article until you have your 20 articles.
- If a selected article only fleetingly mentions the earthquake as a peripheral element of another story, please do not use this article and select the next article in its place.
- Log in to the [Institution] library website using your [Institution] login
- Click on the “Databases” tab
- Search for “Proquest–Multiple Databases”
- Click on the “News and Newspapers” tab
- Click on the “Publications” tab
- Search for “Manila Times”
- Click on the link for the newspaper
- Search within the publication using the Advanced Search function
- add “X Country” + “earthquake” to the search
- narrow the results to the date range of the earthquake date to the 1st year anniversary of the earthquake e.g., 10/8/2005–10/8/2006
- sort the results by publication date (oldest first)
- do not include duplicates
- Divide the entire sample by 20 to find X. Starting from the 1st article, select every Xth article until you have your 20 articles.
- If a selected article only fleetingly mentions the earthquake as a peripheral element of another story, please do not use this article and select the next article in its place.
Appendix B
Taxonomy of Localization
- explanations or statements indicating why the overseas earthquake is significant to the locality of the newspaper.
- direct comparisons between the two areas, citing the common vulnerability to seismic activity.
- the mention of vulnerabilities in the disaster stricken community that are shared by their locality without explicitly comparing the two communities.
- ○
- E.g., descriptions of the technology used in the construction of buildings, the science surrounding the prediction of earthquakes, the type of fault, the natural features that proved to be significant in the tremor, or the measures taken to prepare for the eventuality of the earthquake.
- the reporting of facts that may affect the observing community, including the impact of the earthquake on the global insurance industry or the global economy.
- references to the presence of citizens of the observing community living in the stricken community
- the citation of people in the observing community with friends or relatives in the stricken community
- the mention of people from the stricken community who were living in the observing community
- explicit references to differences such as the inadequate enforcement of building codes
- social disorder
- a lack of preparedness
- a troubled history
- poverty
- corruption
- poor public infrastructure.
- poor government decision making
- criticism of the effectiveness of the response and recovery in the stricken community,
- poor construction,
- poor economic policies
- poor leadership
- identification of cultural differences
- identification of different religious practices
- poor treatment of women
- poor treatment of children
- the observing community’s involvement in the earthquake recovery
- the observing community’s involvement in the provision of aid to the stricken community.
Appendix C
Coding Scheme
- Hindustan Times
- Kingston Gleaner
- El Comercio
- Dominion Post
- Manila Times
- New Delhi, India
- Kingston, Jamaica
- Lima, Peru
- Wellington, New Zealand
- Manila, Philippines
- Pakistan–8 October 2005
- Haiti–12 January 2010
- Chile–27 February 2010
- New Zealand–22 February 2011
- Japan–11 March 2011
- Number of article in sample of 20
- Date of the newspaper where article is published (DD-MMM-YY)
- If given, the part of the newspaper where the article is published
- If given, the page of the newspaper where the article is published
- The number of words in the article.
- If there is no quoted number, this can be estimated by multiplying the number of words in the first line by the total number of lines in the article.
- If given, the author/s of the article, including press agencies like Reuters, AP etc
- If given, the location/s where the article was filed by the author/s
- Each paragraph in the article is to be numbered and given its own row
- A yes/no assessment of whether there was communalization in the paragraph
- A yes/no assessment of whether there was neutral localization in the paragraph
- A yes/no assessment of whether there was othering in the paragraph
- A yes/no assessment of whether there were direct comparisons between the observing community and the stricken community in the paragraph
- A yes/no assessment of whether there were discussions of shared vulnerabilities between the observing community and the stricken community in the paragraph
- A yes/no assessment of whether there were descriptions of poor government decision-making in the paragraph
- A yes/no assessment of whether there were descriptions of the observing community being involved in providing aid for the stricken community in the paragraph
- A yes/no assessment of whether there were descriptions of the observing community being involved in response & recovery efforts in the stricken community in the paragraph
- A yes/no assessment of whether there were descriptions of conflict between the observing community and the stricken community
Appendix D
Examples of Applications of the Coding Scheme
- IF THE first Christchurch earthquake did not wake up Wellington’s civic leaders, the second must. Urgent action is required to reduce the risk posed by earthquake-prone buildings in the capital.
- The city should be a safe place to work, live and shop. At present, parts of it are not.
- Since the Building Act was revised in 2004 Wellington City Council has been assessing older buildings in the city. Its initial investigations identified about 3800 buildings that potentially presented an unacceptable risk. Most were commercial and multi-unit apartment buildings built before 1976.
- Of that 3800, almost 1500 have subsequently been declared up to standard and 161 confirmed as earthquake risks. The rest have either yet to be assessed or are the subject of negotiations between the council and owners. The council’s best guess is that about 600 buildings will eventually require strengthening to bring them up to the minimum standard for older buildings—one-third of the standard required of new buildings. The risks are scattered throughout the city, not just in historic precincts such as Cuba St.
- Initially, the deadline for upgrading “quake-prone” buildings was set at five to 15 years, but in 2009 it was extended to between 10 and 20 years, after building owners pleaded for more time.
- After the first Christchurch quake then-mayor Kerry Prendergast called for a review of council policy, including the deadlines. The council is scheduled to be briefed on the parameters of the review later this month. After the second quake it has been obvious that quicker action is required. The council and building owners are gambling with people’s lives. If the “Big One”, predicted for Wellington some time in the next few hundred years, strikes before buildings are strengthened lives will be unnecessarily lost.
- The Christchurch quake illustrates just what a difference the quality of buildings makes to the chances of survival. Some buildings were reduced to rubble; others emerged virtually unscathed.
- In its wake, it is incumbent on the council and building owners to take a fresh, hard-headed look at the city. A balance must be struck between safety, cost and heritage. Older buildings add greatly to the charm of the capital, but this should not be at the cost of human life.
- Some buildings must be preserved because of what they contribute to the city. If it is necessary for ratepayers to contribute to the cost of strengthening buildings that add to the city’s unique character, then so be it. In other cases, if owners are unwilling, or unable, to bring their buildings up to scratch they should be declared unable to be occupied so new, safer replacements can be constructed.
- The lessons of Christchurch must be learned. As things stand, people could for the next 20 years live in, work in, and pass by buildings that do not meet minimum standards. The low-priority category of buildings eligible for 20-year stays of execution includes hotels, office buildings and apartment buildings of less than 15 storeys. That is not acceptable.
Article ID | Paragraph | Communalization | Neutral Localization | Othering |
---|---|---|---|---|
4-4-3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-4-3 | 10 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
- JAPANESE earthquake victims are coming to New Zealand to escape the threat of radiation and fear of tsunamis under a scheme launched by a Facebook group.
- Ayaka Hiyamizu, 31, and her son Rakuto, 3, arrived in Wellington yesterday to stay with a Wellington couple for two months.
- Mrs Hiyamizu, a tutor, wanted to leave her city Hachinohe in Japan’s northeast because she feared radiation was causing her son’s facial eczema to flare up.
- She was looking forward to the fresh “nuclear-free” air and getting a good night’s sleep while staying at Roger and Lim Meecham’s Miramar home.
- Her husband could not leave Japan because of his job, she said.
- The Time out in NZ scheme arranges for Kiwi hosts to take in Japanese quake victims for up to 90 days. It was created by the people behind the Japan New Zealand noticeboard on Facebook, who had organised reduced airfares, and is supported by the New Zealand embassy in Tokyo.
- The Meechams had hosted international students for 20 years and heard about the scheme through their contacts.
- Mr Meecham turned up at the airport with a toy digger for Rakuto and Mrs Meecham had prepared a welcome dinner. The couple said they would appreciate people from the Japanese community getting in touch as Mrs Hiyamizu speaks limited English.
Article ID | Paragraph | Communalization | Neutral Localization | Othering |
---|---|---|---|---|
4-5-16 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
4-5-16 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
4-5-16 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
4-5-16 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
4-5-16 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
4-5-16 | 6 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
4-5-16 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4-5-16 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
- Children and women in quake-hit areas in Pakistan are being subjected to sexual and physical abuse, and they are falling in the trap of human trafficking, a United Nations report has said.
- There was also evidence that there was an increased risk of domestic violence in these areas because of lack of employment and growing poverty, the report added.
- According to it, children in the quake-affected areas were vulnerable to psychological problems, drug use, crime, sexual and economic exploitation and human trafficking, and face risks of forced displacement and human rights violations. They reportedly don’t have equal access to relief supplies, services and economic opportunities. Marginalised groups in relief camps, such as the disabled, the elderly, ethnic and religious minorities, the illiterate and drug addicts, are also vulnerable, the report added.
- The Daily Times quoted the UN report as saying that there was a possibility of increase in crime, social injustice and poverty in the NWFP and PoK.
- It warned that issues such as human trafficking were a key concern. “As time goes on, some risks evolve while others might disappear. Long-term displacement and poverty make people vulnerable to substance abuse, HIV/AIDS, domestic violence, crime and human trafficking,” the paper quoted it as saying further.
- “Women’s entitlement to property is of particular concern in earthquake-affected areas given the discriminatory inheritance practices,” it added.
- Quoting the figures of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the report claimed that around 17,000 pregnant women in these areas were expected to give birth in the next two months, even as 1200 of them might face major complications and around 400 would require surgical assistance.
- The UNFPA also warned that the health of these pregnant women was at risk due to the shock and trauma they suffered in the October 8 earthquake.
Article ID | Paragraph | Communalization | Neutral Localization | Othering |
---|---|---|---|---|
1-1-11 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
1-1-11 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
1-1-11 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
1-1-11 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
1-1-11 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
1-1-11 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
1-1-11 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
1-1-11 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Appendix E
Intercoder Reliability
Variable | Percent Agreement | Brennan and Prediger’s Kappa | Cohen/Conger’s Kappa | Fleiss’ Pi | Gwet’s AC | Krippendorff’s Alpha (95% CI) | Observations |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Communalization | 0.7456 | 0.4912 *** | 0.3021 *** | 0.2921 *** | 0.6029 *** | 0.2928 (0.1978, 0.3877) | 511 |
Othering | 0.9530 | 0.9061 *** | 0.0530 | 0.0528 | 0.9506 *** | 0.0538 (−0.0910, 0.1985) | 511 |
Appendix F
The Distribution of Localization by Earthquake and Newspaper
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Type of Localization | Indicators |
---|---|
Communalization |
|
Neutral localization |
|
Othering |
|
Stricken Country | Date of Earthquake | Magnitude of Earthquake on Richter Scale | Number Killed | Estimated Damage ($US Million) |
---|---|---|---|---|
New Zealand | 22 February 2011 | 6.1 | 181 | 150,000 |
Japan | 11 March 2011 | 9.0 | 19,846 | 210,000 |
Chile | 27 February 2010 | 8.8 | 562 | 30,000 |
Pakistan | 8 October 2005 | 7.6 | 73,338 | 5200 |
Haiti | 12 January 2010 | 7.0 | 222,570 | 8000 |
Location | Newspaper | Estimated Local Daily Readership | Local Circulation Area |
---|---|---|---|
Wellington, New Zealand | Dominion Post | 159,000 (2018) | Wellington & lower North Island |
Kingston, Jamaica | Gleaner | 509,000 (2012) | Kingston & greater Jamaica |
Lima, Peru | El Comercio | 467,600 (2010) | Lima & central Peru |
Manila, Philippines | Manila Times | 120,700 (2012) | Manila & National Capital Region |
Delhi, India | Hindustan Times | 1,620,000 (2018) | Delhi & National Capital Region |
Observations | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min. | Max. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent Variables | |||||
Communalization | 3501 | 0.2499286 | 0.4330333 | 0 | 1 |
Othering | 3501 | 0.0422736 | 0.2012415 | 0 | 1 |
Independent Variable | |||||
Stricken Community Development (UN HDI) | 3501 | 0.68406 | 0.206094 | 0.454 | 0.908 |
Control Variables | |||||
Observing Community Development (UN HDI) | 3501 | 0.7286061 | 0.1323478 | 0.547 | 0.908 |
No. Killed (Log) | 3501 | 9.592109 | 2.726754 | 5.198497 | 12.313 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Logit (robust s.e.) | Logit (robust s.e.) | Logit (robust s.e.) | |
Stricken Community Development | 1.676 *** (0.196) | 1.601 *** (0.197) | 3.425 *** (0.291) |
Observing Community Development | 0.735 ** (0.233) | 0.894 *** (0.239) | |
No. Killed (Log) | 0.185 *** (0.023) | ||
Constant | −2.275 *** (0.146) | −2.762 *** (0.215) | −5.920 *** (0.439) |
Observations | 3501 | 3501 | 3501 |
Pseudo R2 | 0.019 | 0.021 | 0.038 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Logit (robust s.e.) | Logit (robust s.e.) | Logit (robust s.e.) | |
Stricken Community Development | −2.903 *** (0.483) | −3.085 *** (0.469) | −3.500 *** (0.899) |
Observing Community Development | 1.561 ** (0.605) | 1.539 * (0.602) | |
No. Killed (Log) | −0.037 (0.070) | ||
Constant | −1.293 *** (0.292) | −2.325 *** (0.559) | −1.676 (1.312) |
Observations | 3501 | 3501 | 3501 |
Pseudo R2 | 0.036 | 0.041 | 0.041 |
(1) | (2) | |
---|---|---|
Logit (robust s.e.) | Logit (robust s.e.) | |
Difference in Development | −1.880 *** (0.258) | −1.969 *** (0.250) |
No. Killed (Log) | 0.012 (0.013) | |
Constant | −0.762 *** (0.061) | −0.858 *** (0.134) |
Observations | 3501 | 3501 |
Pseudo R2 | 0.010 | 0.010 |
(1) | (2) | |
---|---|---|
Logit (robust s.e.) | Logit (robust s.e.) | |
Difference in Development | 0.201 (0.657) | −1.141 + (0.670) |
No. Killed (Log) | 0.209 *** (0.041) | |
Constant | −3.158 *** (0.151) | −5.032 *** (0.485) |
Observations | 3501 | 3501 |
Pseudo R2 | 0.000 | 0.026 |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Jamieson, T.; Van Belle, D.A. How Development Affects News Media Coverage of Earthquakes: Implications for Disaster Risk Reduction in Observing Communities. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1970. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071970
Jamieson T, Van Belle DA. How Development Affects News Media Coverage of Earthquakes: Implications for Disaster Risk Reduction in Observing Communities. Sustainability. 2019; 11(7):1970. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071970
Chicago/Turabian StyleJamieson, Thomas, and Douglas A. Van Belle. 2019. "How Development Affects News Media Coverage of Earthquakes: Implications for Disaster Risk Reduction in Observing Communities" Sustainability 11, no. 7: 1970. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071970