Decarbonization Strategies for Northern Quebec: Enhancing Building Efficiency and Integrating Renewable Energy in Off-Grid Indigenous Communities

Abstract

This review explores the pressing need for decarbonization strategies in the off-grid Indigenous communities of Northern Quebec, particularly focusing on Nunavik, where reliance on diesel and fossil fuels for heating and electricity has led to disproportionately excessive greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions underscore the urgent need for sustainable energy alternatives. This study investigates the potential for improving building energy efficiency through advanced thermal insulation, airtight construction, and the elimination of thermal bridges. These measures have been tested in practice; for instance, a prototype house in Quaqtaq achieved over a 54% reduction in energy consumption compared to the standard model. Beyond efficiency improvements, this review assesses the feasibility of renewable energy sources such as wood pellets, solar photovoltaics, wind power, geothermal energy, and run-of-river hydropower in reducing fossil fuel dependence in these communities. For instance, the Innavik hydroelectric project in Inukjuak reduced diesel use by 80% and is expected to cut 700,000 t of CO₂ over 40 years. Solar energy, despite seasonal limitations, can complement other systems, particularly during sunnier months, while wind energy projects such as the Raglan Mine turbines save 4.4 million liters of diesel annually and prevent nearly 12,000 t of CO₂ emissions. Geothermal and run-of-river hydropower systems are identified as long-term and effective solutions. This review emphasizes the role of Indigenous knowledge in guiding the energy transition and ensuring that solutions are culturally appropriate for community needs. By identifying both technological and socio-economic barriers, this review offers a foundation for future research and policy development aimed at enabling a sustainable and equitable energy transition in off-grid Northern Quebec communities.

1. Introduction

Change and advancing sustainable development are reflected in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 7, which targets universal access to modern and clean energy services by 2030 [1]. Modern energy access is linked to improved livelihoods, health, and education [2]. Despite progress, around 1.1 billion people—mostly in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia—still lack electricity. In Canada, approximately 72% of remote Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal communities rely on fossil fuels, primarily oil, for power generation, while renewable energy adoption remains limited at 4.7% [3].

Indigenous Peoples, who make up 6% of the global population but 20% of those living in extreme poverty, are disproportionately affected by climate change due to their land-based livelihoods and remote locations [4,5]. Although interest in clean energy transitions in Indigenous communities is growing, rural development policies still often overlook their needs [4]. Moreover, Indigenous voices remain underrepresented in energy research and policymaking, despite the vital role of Indigenous knowledge in shaping sustainable energy solutions [6,7].

Numerous remote communities around the world face challenges such as limited access to energy resources, harsh weather, expensive transportation, and a small workforce. In Canada, there are approximately 182 to 300 isolated communities, many of which are Indigenous communities [8]. The Inuit are Indigenous Peoples native to the circumpolar regions, with communities spread across the Chukchi Peninsula in Eastern Siberia, as well as in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Within Canada, most Inuit reside in one of four officially recognized regions collectively referred to as Inuit Nunangat—Nunavut, Nunavik (located in Northern Quebec), Nunatsiavut (in Labrador), and the Inuvialuit Settlement Region—as illustrated in Figure 1a [9].

In 2021, the residential sector in Quebec saw a 57.9% drop in GHG emissions compared to 1990 [10]. This significant drop is due to the growing trend of using Hydro-Québec electricity instead of fuel oil to heat living spaces. In addition, the Quebec government’s Plan for a Green Economy 2030 targets a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions linked to the heating of residential, commercial, and institutional buildings, which corresponds to a decrease of approximately 540,000 t [11]. This initiative is motivated by the 2015 Paris climate agreements, which Canada signed in 2016 [12].

Quebec ranks first among the provinces in renewable energy production (94.3% hydroelectricity, 5.3% biomass and wind power) [13]. This makes the energy produced in Quebec some of the most carbon-free in the country. However, despite this position, Quebec’s isolated communities north of the 49th parallel still rely on fossil fuels on a daily basis [14]. Almost all the energy consumed in this region comes from fossil fuels. For example, each of Nunavik’s 14 villages has a diesel-fired power plant that supplies electricity to its inhabitants [15]. Additionally, Nunavummiut uses oil-fired forced-air or hydronic systems to heat their living spaces. These systems are relatively inefficient and contribute to higher emissions. In comparison, the average Nunavummiut home consumes 310 kWh/m²/year to meet its heating needs, while the provincial average is between 101 kWh/m²/year and 178 kWh/m²/year [16].

Hydro-Québec manages approximately 20 thermal power plants to supply electricity to isolated communities that lack access to the primary electrical grid. Although these facilities contribute less than 1% to Hydro-Québec’s total electricity generation, they are responsible for approximately 43% of the company’s total GHG emissions [17]. This mismatch between output and emissions highlights the environmental challenges associated with relying on thermal generation in isolated areas. In response, Hydro-Québec has set an ambitious goal to transition its off-grid systems to achieve an 80% renewable energy supply by 2030 [18]. The significant reliance on diesel-based power plants, particularly in Nunavik, further exacerbates the issue, leading to elevated annual GHG emissions, as detailed in

Table 1. Characteristics of equipment by power plant 2022 in Nunavik, Quebec, Canada [19].

Village	No of Units	Installed Capacity (kW)	Fuel Type	Efficiency (kWh/L)	Utilization Factor (%)	Guaranteed Capacity (kW)
Akulivik	2	2 × 727, 1 × 565	Arctic diesel	3.79	69	1163
Aupaluk	3	3 × 320	Arctic diesel	3.62	47	467
Inukjuak	4	1 × 855, 1 × 600, 1 × 1168, 1 × 1135	Arctic diesel	3.19	50	2331
Ivujivik	3	2 × 450, 1 × 560	Arctic diesel	3.02	46	1274
Kangiqsualujjuaq	3	3 × 650	Arctic diesel	3.66	56	1274
Kangiqsujuaq	3	2 × 600, 1 × 520	Arctic diesel	3.6	62	1171
Kangirsuk	2	2 × 450, 1 × 560	Arctic diesel	3.53	62	1070
Kuujjuarapik	3	3 × 900	Arctic diesel	3.2	42	2403
Puvirnituq	3	2 × 1135, 1 × 1830	Arctic diesel	3.65	56	2661
Quaqtaq	2	2 × 450	Arctic diesel	3.62	57	537
Salluit	3	3 × 1135, 1 × 820, 1 × 365	Arctic diesel	3.24	52	2477
Tasiujaq	2	2 × 855	Arctic diesel	3.47	57	639
Umiujaq	3	1 × 400, 1 × 525, 1 × 855	Arctic diesel	3.69	53	864
Akulivik	2	2 × 727, 1 × 565	Arctic diesel	3.79	69	1163

[19]. Table 1 presents the power capacity, fuel type, efficiency, and utilization factors for diesel-based power plants in remote areas of Quebec, including Îles-de-la-Madeleine and Nunavik. The table indicates that Îles-de-la-Madeleine relies on heavy and light diesel fuel, with older plants showing lower efficiency and utilization factors compared to newer installations. This reliance on diesel not only contributes to higher emissions but also underscores the urgent need for sustainable energy solutions in these remote communities. The lower efficiency and aging infrastructure in Nunavik, as shown in Table 1, further highlight the challenge of transitioning to cleaner energy in these isolated regions.

North of the 49th parallel is a region where very high heating UDDs (unified degree-days) are recorded during the winter months [20]. Yet, most buildings and HVAC systems in this extreme climate remain poorly suited to the harsh environmental conditions. This review provides a comprehensive and up-to-date synthesis of energy efficiency measures and renewable energy integration in Northern Quebec, with a particular focus on off-grid Indigenous communities. It consolidates recent field data, simulation results, and government reports and critically analyzes the feasibility, effectiveness, and limitations of technologies such as wood pellets, geothermal systems, wind–diesel hybrids, and run-of-river hydro. This paper also compares thermal performance standards across cold-climate countries and assesses building envelope configurations using RSI benchmarks. Unlike existing literature, this review connects technical insights with socio-political barriers, logistical constraints, and cultural considerations, offering an interdisciplinary framework to guide both researchers and policymakers. This work aims to inform future simulation studies, community-based energy planning, and the prioritization of retrofit strategies in the context of Canada’s decarbonization efforts.

2. Renewable Energy Transition Barriers and Drivers

Several studies have focused on the pressing need for sustainable energy solutions in Nunavik. Researchers have extensively discussed the importance of advancing renewable energy solutions in the region and highlighting the critical need for alternative energy sources, emphasizing the urgent need for improvement. Mortensen et al. [21] performed a study to analyze how three key factors, namely, economy, infrastructure, and technology, are driving and challenging the implementation of renewables in the four Arctic areas: Alaska, Canadian Arctic, Greenland, and Russian Arctic. They implied that no one solution can be applied to all Arctic remote communities to replace fossil fuels with renewable energies.

In a study conducted by Cavalerie et al. [16], the focus was exploring the requirements, perceptions, and adaptive strategies of residents concerning energy usage and comfort in their homes within the Inuit community of Quaqtaq (Nunavik, Quebec, Canada). This investigation delved into occupants’ experiences, observations, and perceptions based on responses from 16 semi-structured interviews. The study encompassed various topics, including comfort levels, practices related to window opening and the use of curtains, utilization of thermostats, water consumption, and lighting usage. The study revealed that occupants frequently simultaneously use windows and thermostats to control temperature. Additionally, occupants often observed non-uniform temperature distribution and noted cold floors within their dwellings. Furthermore, in that study, we observed two types of windows, single-hung and sliding, as shown in Figure 2. The latter received numerous complaints due to issues with freezing and infiltration. Hence, it can be inferred that the building envelope in Nunavik needs an improvement in the thermal resistance of the components and the identification of thermal bridges. Cavalerie and Gosselin [22] explored the challenge of designing energy-efficient and comfortable buildings in remote Arctic areas such as Nunavik, Canada, by investigating the impact of occupant behavior on energy consumption, particularly related to window usage. Their study gathered data on weather conditions and window status by monitoring 10 residential units in Quaqtaq between September 2018 and August 2020. The findings revealed that residents interacted more frequently with windows in shared spaces and tended to keep bedroom windows open for longer periods. Factors such as time of day, temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed were found to influence these behaviors. Logistic regression-based models were developed to estimate annual window-opening ratios and seasonal trends. While the models captured general patterns effectively, they generally overpredicted the frequency of openings and underestimated their duration.

Based on an interview with experts in Nunavik conducted by Suárez et al. [8], constructing social housing buildings in Nunavik presents a multifaceted challenge encompassing both technical and social dimensions. Energy resources, the availability of local labor, construction time constraints, waste disposal, and transportation challenges, as well as limitations related to packaging and storage, are identified as the key factors that restrict potential construction solutions. Based on the study of Paquet et al. [23], apart from implementing renewable energies in Inuit communities in Nunavik, integrating their interests with energy planning is of vital importance. Their findings indicate that solar panels are a well-appreciated alternative to fossil fuels, particularly when integrated into building structures. Hydroelectric dams were associated with land destruction, whereas run-of-river infrastructure and wind turbines raised concerns about wildlife, which is vital for the Inuit subsistence economy.

Riva et al. [24] examined the housing challenges experienced by Inuit adults in Northern Quebec who were on the waiting list for social housing in Nunavik and Nunavut. Their analysis focused on a group of 102 individuals who had been re-housed and completed both baseline and follow-up evaluations. The study highlighted that 24% of residents in Nunavik lived in homes requiring major repairs, a stark contrast to the 7% reported among non-Indigenous Canadians. Furthermore, 52% of Nunavik’s population lived in overcrowded conditions, with at least one bedroom fewer than needed, compared to only 5% across the broader Canadian population. These figures reflect the widespread and urgent housing challenges in Nunavik. The research also indicated that the development of social housing in Nunavik and Nunavut significantly improves occupants’ living conditions. These outcomes emphasize the importance of sustained investment in new social housing, as well as the retrofitting of existing dwellings to improve structural integrity and energy performance in these regions. Additionally, it advocates exploring alternative tenure models, such as rent-to-own schemes and homeownership opportunities. Duran et al. [25] integrated diverse research and community perspectives to elucidate the reasons behind the ongoing research–practice gap in this field. The authors believe that studies on energy transitions for off-grid Indigenous Nations will make little practical impact and primarily serve researchers’ interests if they lack meaningful connections to the communities. Such an approach will also fail to contribute effectively to broader goals of human rights and sustainable development. They suggest establishing research frameworks that promote equity and inclusivity, gaining insight into the perspectives and values of the community, and setting holistic research goals. Additionally, they emphasize the importance of respecting Indigenous data sovereignty and working closely with communities to either share or co-create knowledge that aligns with their priorities. Goloux [26] performed a study focused on assessing the poor housing conditions in First Nations communities in Canada, where inadequate and overcrowded living situations have led to increased health risks. The research presents a process for evaluating housing conditions, using a case study of 159 homes in Roseau River Anishinabe First Nation, Manitoba. The study identified a total of 72 typical housing issues identified as contributing factors to 12 health and safety hazards through on-site assessments, mold inspections, and occupant surveys. Their work led to the development of a good building practice guide, which provides recommendations for addressing these deficiencies, emphasizing the improvement of health, safety, durability, and functionality in First Nations housing. The study’s significance lies in offering a tool for housing authorities to prioritize critical repairs and allocate funding effectively, while also guiding housing designers in proactively addressing common deficiencies.

Maynard and Abdulla [27] pointed out that Canada’s 350 remote and northern communities largely rely on imported diesel for their electrical and thermal needs, which has adverse effects on energy security, health, albedo, and climate. A major challenge in addressing this issue is the lack of data, particularly the lack of detailed hourly data on thermal energy demand. To overcome this, the researchers developed a predictive model based on available information, such as population and location, to estimate the communities’ demand for thermal energy. Their results revealed that in winter, thermal loads can be up to 23 times greater than electrical loads, highlighting significant considerations for investment planning. Based on the action plan of the Société d’habitation du Québec (SHQ) [28], the plan emphasizes the importance of proper insulation and airtightness to reduce heat losses. The plan also highlights the need for retrofitting existing buildings with energy-efficient technologies such as advanced heating systems and high-efficiency windows and doors. For non-residential buildings, the action plan includes similar measures but also addresses the specific needs of larger structures such as schools, community centers, and commercial buildings. Additionally, the plan calls for the adoption of green building standards and certifications to ensure that new constructions meet high energy efficiency and environmental performance criteria. Incorporating renewable energy technologies, including wind turbines and solar photovoltaic systems, is also promoted as a sustainable approach to meeting the energy demands of buildings.

While existing studies have identified a wide range of technical, economic, and socio-political barriers to renewable energy deployment in off-grid northern communities, most of the literature remains fragmented or location-specific, lacking a cohesive synthesis that links these challenges to actionable strategies. Moreover, few reviews critically examine the interaction between building energy efficiency improvements and renewable integration as a combined decarbonization pathway in the context of remote Indigenous regions. This paper seeks to bridge this gap by consolidating insights from the literature to highlight integrated approaches that consider not only technology feasibility but also community acceptability, logistical constraints, and long-term resilience. In doing so, it aims to provide a more comprehensive foundation for future research and policy development focused on energy transitions in isolated cold-climate regions.

3. Building Energy Efficiency

In Nunavik, energy efficiency in buildings is enhanced through specialized architectural designs that address extreme cold climates. Building structures are elevated 0.6 to 1.2 m above the ground, with low or flat roof slopes to allow wind circulation, reducing structural pressure and snow accumulation, thus protecting the permafrost. A square-shaped design is recommended for maximizing energy savings, minimizing the exterior wall perimeter relative to the interior floor area, and reducing thermal losses [29]. According to the study conducted by Younis et al. [30], which utilized building information modeling (BIM) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, elevating buildings to a height of 1 m above the ground is considered optimal for northern climates, as it helps reduce thermal stress on underlying permafrost.

These construction adaptations are not merely architectural but also promote permafrost protection, wind load mitigation, and snow accumulation control—common challenges identified across northern circumpolar regions. However, unlike in Alaskan or Nordic Arctic communities, such design principles in Nunavik remain less standardized, indicating a gap in codified regional adaptation practices.

3.1. Building Envelope

In regions characterized by prolonged and severe winters, such as those in the North, buildings must be designed with specific features to ensure optimal thermal performance and structural integrity to minimize heating and electrical loads. A critical component in this context is the implementation of a super-insulated building envelope. Studies have shown that more than half of a building’s primary energy consumption can be saved by reinforcing its envelope insulation, optimizing its ventilation system, and integrating more efficient, high-performance heating systems [31]. This envelope is meticulously engineered to eliminate thermal bridges, which are localized areas of increased heat transfer that can significantly reduce the building’s overall energy efficiency. The proper insulation effectively minimizes heat loss during the extended heating season, thereby maintaining indoor thermal comfort and reducing the energy demand for space heating. Kayello et al. [32] examined the challenges of constructing durable and airtight housing in Arctic conditions, focusing on the performance of structural insulated panel (SIP) joints. A full-scale test hut built with SIPs was tested under simulated Arctic temperatures. The study revealed that junctions where three envelope components meet are more susceptible to air infiltration and moisture-related deterioration than simpler connections. It also emphasized that achieving airtightness in all joint types largely depends on the effectiveness of tape sealing. The top joints are particularly vulnerable to moisture damage due to the exfiltration of moist indoor air caused by the stack effect.

Two categories of homes are predominant north of the 49th parallel: semi-detached homes, which account for 48.9% of the stock, and single-family homes, which represent 29% [16]. Figure 3 also shows the examples of social house models in Quaqtaq.

Single-family houses have been built since 1987 by the Société d’habitation du Québec, while semi-detached homes began to sprout up in 2010 with the participation of Makivik [33]. Today, there are various types of houses in the region, but these two types are the most numerous. A report published in 2024 [34], detailing the characteristics of Nordic houses and their construction, has made it possible to estimate the thermal resistance of walls according to the different materials used during construction (see

Table 2. Characteristics and details of the thermal envelope with an estimate of nominal RSI values for semi-detached houses J2.2.

Elements [16]	Thickness (m) [16]	Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K) [35,36,37]	Nominal RSI (m2·K/W)
Roof
Insulation (blown cellulose)	0.280	0.035	8.00
Insulation (extruded polystyrene)	0.038	0.032	1.19
Underlay (plywood)	0.016	0.13	0.12
Interior lining (plasterboard)	0.013	0.17	0.08
Total roof			9.39 (U = 0.11 (W/m2·K))
Walls
Insulation (extruded polystyrene)	0.038	0.032	1.19
Cladding (OSB)	0.011	0.13	0.09
Insulation between studs (mineral wool)	0.14	0.035	4.00
Interior lining (plasterboard)	0.013	0.17	0.08
Total wall			5.35 (U = 0.19 (W/m2·K))
Floor
Insulation (blown cellulose)	0.28	0.035	8.00
Subfloor (plywood)	0.016	0.13	0.12
Interior lining (plasterboard)	0.013	0.17	0.08
Total floor			8.20 (U = 0.12 (W/m2·K))

and

Table 3. Characteristics and details of the thermal envelope with an estimate of nominal RSI values for single-family houses.

Elements [16]	Thickness (m) [16]	Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K) [35,36,37]	Nominal RSI (m2·K/W)
Roof
Insulation (mineral wool)	0.2	0.035	5.71
Insulation (mineral wool)	0.089	0.035	2.54
Insulation (extruded polystyrene)	0.038	0.032	1.19
Underlay (plywood)	0.013	0.13	0.10
Interior lining (plasterboard)	0.013	0.17	0.08
Total roof			9.62 (U = 0.10 (W/m2·K))
Walls
Insulation (extruded polystyrene)	0.038	0.032	1.19
Cladding (OSB)	0.009	0.13	0.07
Insulation between studs (mineral wool)	0.14	0.035	4.00
Interior lining (plasterboard)	0.013	0.17	0.08
Total wall			5.33 (U = 0.19 (W/m2·K))
Floor
Insulation (mineral wool)	0.089	0.035	2.54
Insulation (extruded polystyrene)	0.038	0.032	1.19
Interior lining (plasterboard)	0.013	0.17	0.08
Total floor			3.81 (U = 0.26 (W/m2·K))

).

In a northern climate with very high UDDs, a wall with a high RSI is mandatory for limiting heat loss and ensuring thermal comfort. Yan conducted a study [38] comparing the RSI of the walls of residential houses in Nunavik with those imposed by the Quebec building code. The study revealed that the RSI of houses in Nunavik is below the minimum required by the Quebec building code, i.e., below the provincial average. In addition to this finding, Amy Huynh et al. [39] carried out a comparative study of thermal regulations for building energy efficiency in cold-climate countries. In their study, the authors compared Canada (Zone 7A of the national building code), Norway, Sweden, Iceland, China, and Russia (see Figure 4).

Table 4. RSI and U values of building envelope components and air leakage rates across various cold-climate countries [39].

Country	Canada	Finland	Iceland	Norway (NED)	Norway (ESM)	Sweden (W/TEH)	China (1B)	Russia
Air leakage (L/m2.s)	1.17	0.19	0.46	0.63	0.21	0.42	0.84	0.63
RSI (m2·K/W)
RSI walls (above ground)	2.94	6.42	4.94	4.29	5.37	5.04	3.1	3.4
RSI roofs	5.37	11.42	8.88	7.59	10.6	8.88	6.64	7.24
RSI floors (in contact)	2.94	3.76	3.34	3.55	4.2	3.76	2.73	3.14
RSI floors (above ground)	3.35	4.41	3.97	4.2	4.83	4.41	3.14	3.55
RSI windows	0.5	0.8	0.7	0.6	0.8	0.7	0.6	0.6
RSI doors	0.8	1.26	1.05	0.94	1.26	1.05	0.84	0.94
U-value (W/m2·K)
U-value walls (above ground)	0.34	0.156	0.202	0.233	0.186	0.198	0.323	0.294
U-value roofs	0.186	0.088	0.113	0.132	0.094	0.113	0.151	0.138
U-value floors (in contact)	0.34	0.266	0.299	0.282	0.238	0.266	0.366	0.318
U-value floors (above ground)	0.299	0.227	0.252	0.238	0.207	0.227	0.318	0.282
U-value windows	2	1.25	1.429	1.667	1.25	1.429	1.667	1.667
U-value doors	1.25	0.794	0.952	1.064	0.794	0.952	1.19	1.064

and Figure 4 illustrate a comparison of RSI values for several building components, including walls, roofs, floors, windows, and doors, as well as air leakage levels, across several cold-climate countries. Canada (Zone 7A) stands out for having the lowest RSI requirements for above-ground walls and windows, which suggests less stringent thermal insulation standards compared to other regions, which could lead to greater heat loss. By contrast, the ESM show the highest RSI values for walls, indicating stronger insulation standards. Roofs across all countries generally have higher RSI values, with Norway (NID) and Finland demonstrating particularly robust insulation for roofs, addressing the significant heat loss that typically occurs through this component. The chart also highlights air leakage rates, with Finland and Norway exhibiting lower air leakage, which further contributes to improved energy efficiency in their cold climates. This analysis underscores the variation in thermal performance requirements across these countries, reflecting differing approaches to energy efficiency in building codes. Overall, this figure suggests that Nunavik’s standards should at least tend to be as tight as those of Finland and Norway.

When comparing the RSI values of wall assemblies in Nunavik to international benchmarks, a clear disparity emerges. While Finland and Norway impose wall RSI values exceeding 5.0 m²·K/W, Nunavik’s single-family and semi-detached homes barely reach 5.3 m²·K/W. This difference reflects a regulatory lag, despite the region’s harsher climate. These lower standards may contribute to higher space-heating demands, which emphasizes the need for tailored, stringent thermal codes in subarctic regions like Nunavik.

In 2016, the Société d’habitation du Québec also published a report on a prototype house in Quaqtaq [40]. The prototype was designed to meet the community’s lifestyle and to serve as an example of energy efficiency for future construction by improving envelope insulation and integrating a more efficient heating system. Layers of insulation were added to the exterior walls, along with triple-glazed windows, to enhance insulation. Compared with the standard J2.2, the prototype proposed a significantly higher RSI. The report of the SHQ [40] details the strategies and technologies implemented to enhance building efficiency in this northern region. The heating system is a hybrid model that combines oil-fueled boilers with energy recovery ventilation (ERV) to minimize energy consumption. The building’s envelope, consisting of highly insulated walls and floors, achieves an overall thermal resistance of RSI 10.04 for walls and RSI 10.34 for the roof, significantly reducing heat loss. As a result, the 2021–2026 Strategic Plan of the SHQ [41] aims to enhance the thermal insulation of buildings and improve the airtightness of building envelopes to reduce the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of both new and retrofitted buildings.

The SHQ prototype demonstrates that retrofitting to RSI levels above 10 is feasible and effective. However, large-scale replication of such high-performance construction remains limited. No post-occupancy evaluation data on thermal comfort or energy use have been published to validate the long-term benefits. Moreover, affordability and logistical constraints remain significant barriers to deploying this model at scale in isolated Nunavik communities.

Another essential feature is the integration of a continuous and high-performance air and vapor barrier system. This system serves a dual function: (1) it prevents air infiltration, which is a major contributor to heat loss and can lead to increased energy consumption, and (2) it inhibits vapor diffusion through the building envelope [42]. Controlling vapor diffusion is crucial to prevent condensation within the building’s structure, which could otherwise result in moisture-related issues such as mold growth, material degradation, and compromised structural integrity [43]. In addition to the building envelope and barrier systems, the design must include an elevated floor with a ventilated air space beneath it. This configuration is particularly critical in areas where permafrost is present. The ventilated air space mitigates heat transfer from the building to the underlying soil, which is essential to prevent the thawing of permafrost. Permafrost thaw can lead to ground instability, foundation settlement, and significant structural damage, thus compromising the longevity of the building [44].

Unlike Scandinavian housing, where continuous air barriers and advanced moisture control systems are standard practice, Nunavik homes exhibit a more fragmented approach. This inconsistency leads to localized moisture issues, particularly in attics, as evidenced in multiple hygrothermal studies. Comparative insights suggest that adopting stricter construction protocols from Nordic countries could significantly enhance durability and indoor air quality (IAQ) outcomes.

The roof design is also a vital consideration in such climates. A well-engineered roof must support the substantial snow loads typical of northern regions. In addition, the design should minimize the risk of ice dam formation, which occurs when melted snow refreezes on the roof surface. Ice dams can cause water infiltration, leading to significant damage to the building envelope and interior spaces. Additionally, the roof must be equipped to prevent the ingress of blown-in snow into the attic space, as this could lead to moisture accumulation and subsequent damage to the insulation and structural components [45]. Ge et al. [46] conducted a hygrothermal assessment of attics in three residential buildings located in Nunavik, Northern Quebec. Two of these buildings featured ventilated attics with different filter membrane configurations, while the third was a prototype using structural insulated panels (SIPs) with an unventilated attic design. Their results indicated that without proper ventilation, moisture introduced during construction or accumulated throughout the winter could not be adequately removed. Similarly, Kayello [32] evaluated the hygrothermal behavior of SIPs and attic assemblies tailored for Inuit housing by building a full-scale test hut inside an environmental chamber. Through simulations using WUFI Plus, it was demonstrated that even minimal ventilation rates, such as 1 ACH, were sufficient to prevent mold growth in Arctic attics, regardless of whether the ventilation was passive or mechanical. In another study, Wang [47] performed on-site measurements and hygrothermal simulations to examine attic ventilation strategies in extremely cold climates. The research recommended installing filter membranes within a ventilated cavity behind the façade to block snow ingress into the attic. While this approach showed partial effectiveness, occurrences of water intrusion and moisture damage were still observed in ventilated attics using filter membranes. The study also assessed unventilated cold roof systems, which were effective at minimizing snow buildup but presented significant risks due to limited moisture removal capacity. The analysis included three case-study buildings in northern Canada: two with ventilated attics incorporating various membrane designs located in Kuujjuaq, and one with an unventilated attic situated in Iqaluit. The results showed that the ventilated attics sustained acceptable hygrothermal performance, with sheathing moisture levels consistently below 20%, whereas the unventilated attic was more prone to moisture-related issues.

While these studies provide valuable insights into the performance of ventilated vs. unventilated attics, they remain limited in scope. There is a lack of longitudinal data and large-scale implementation results. Moreover, filter membranes, while partially effective, require routine maintenance—an aspect not always feasible in remote Nunavik communities. Thus, while promising, many of these approaches lack validated operational sustainability under real Arctic conditions.

3.2. Indoor Environmental Quality

Given the severe climate conditions in Northern Quebec, maintaining airtight buildings is essential; however, ensuring proper ventilation is equally important to support healthy indoor environmental quality (IEQ). This is a significant public health concern, especially in northern communities. Aubin et al. [48] demonstrated that residential buildings in the Arctic region of Nunavik exhibit significantly lower ventilation rates than the Canadian recommended standard of 0.35 h⁻¹ and even further below the Scandinavian benchmark of 0.50 h⁻¹. Their study highlighted that enhancing ventilation rates and improving IAQ can be successfully accomplished through proactive maintenance measures and the optimization of existing ventilation systems.

Heat recovery ventilators (HRVs) and ERVs are two types of ventilation systems currently being used in Nunavik. HRVs recover heat to regulate temperature, while ERVs recover both heat and moisture, managing humidity alongside temperature. Degois et al. [49] investigated indoor air quality across 54 residential units employing various ventilation approaches (HRV: n = 16, ERV: n = 24, no HRV and ERV: n = 14) in Nunavik and impacts on IAQ. They recommended installing humidifiers in the dwellings to maintain the relative humidity between 40% and 60%, as low relative humidity has been linked to a higher incidence of respiratory diseases. Li et al. [50] conducted an experimental investigation to address the issue of heat exchanger core frosting in heat recovery ventilator (HRV) systems under cold climate conditions. They compared a conventional HRV unit to a modified version integrated with a building-integrated photovoltaic/thermal (BIPV/T) preheating system. The enhanced system demonstrated the ability to raise the outlet temperature of outdoor air by up to 2.7 °C when ambient temperatures dropped to −25 °C. Similarly, Baril et al. [51] carried out a numerical analysis of an open-loop, air-based BIPV/T system designed to preheat the supply air of energy recovery ventilators (ERVs) in Nunavik. Their findings indicated that the system reduced the daily defrosting duration by up to 7 h. In a related study, Poulin et al. [52] reported that between 2007 and 2012, the hospitalization rate for respiratory illnesses among infants under the age of one in Nunavik was nearly seven times higher than the provincial average in Quebec. Their research examined how improved ventilation strategies could impact the prevalence of respiratory infections in young children. The implementation of HRV and ERV systems was shown to decrease infection rates by 53.0% and 21.7%, respectively. Overall, these studies emphasize the importance of optimizing ventilation systems and incorporating advanced solutions—such as HRVs, ERVs, and BIPV/T preheating technologies—to enhance indoor air quality and reduce health risks in tightly sealed buildings in Northern Quebec.

3.3. Indoor Space Heating Solutions

Pike and Kummert [53] presented a detailed approach for evaluating the thermal energy demand of the remote community of Whapmagoostui–Kuujjuarapik located in Northern Quebec. Their approach utilizes six new residential archetypes designed explicitly for the region, which have been proven to achieve superior accuracy compared to the existing archetypes employed by the United States Department of Energy Climate Zone 8. The authors emphasized that the limited availability of resources for modeling thermal energy requirements in remote northern communities poses a major challenge to decreasing reliance on fossil fuels. They also demonstrated that thermal energy contributes to just over half of the building-related greenhouse gas emissions in Whapmagoostui–Kuujjuarapik, primarily driven by the substantial demand for space heating.

As previously discussed, remote communities in Northern Quebec, including Nunavik, face unique energy challenges due to their reliance on diesel-fired power plants. This dependence significantly contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and highlights the urgent need for clean, sustainable energy solutions tailored to Arctic conditions. To meet their heating needs, these homes are equipped with mechanical rooms that contain two hot-air furnaces with oil burners and a separate water heater also using an oil burner. As a result, the Nordic residents are dependent on fossil fuels, specifically oil and diesel, which emit significant amounts of CO₂ (71.032 kg CO₂e/GJ for fuel oil and 72.841 kg CO₂e/GJ for diesel). Recent studies have explored alternatives to these fossil fuels in the Arctic, including Northern Quebec [54,55,56,57,58,59]. For instance, a prototype installed by the SHQ in Quaqtaq, as discussed in Section 3.1, utilizes a hybrid system (combining hot air and hot water) to supply domestic heating and hot water. While the system still uses oil, transitioning from two burners to a single burner has led to over a 54% reduction in energy consumption compared to the J2.2 twin with the same surface area.

Despite the reduction in energy consumption, the continued reliance on oil in the SHQ hybrid system limits its decarbonization potential. Alternative systems (e.g., electric or biomass-based) show promise, but few have been trialed beyond simulation. A broader field evaluation of real-world retrofit outcomes is needed to confirm long-term cost-effectiveness, emissions reduction, and community satisfaction.

The following sections will discuss alternative space heating solutions to fossil fuels for various communities in Nunavik.

A.

Kuujjuaq

In Kuujjuaq, out of 517 homes across 312 buildings, 157 are single-family residences. Yan et al. [60] conducted a multi-criteria decision analysis using the Preferential Ranking Method for Enrichment Evaluation to evaluate the potential of wood pellet, natural gas, and waste gasification heating systems, along with their environmental impacts. The authors stated that wood pellets offer several advantages, including a high calorific value, consistent and low moisture content, and high density. Additionally, Canada is a leading producer and exporter of wood pellets due to residues from the forestry industry. In Nunavik, wood pellets could serve as an alternative heating source. However, the authors stated that Kuujjuaq faces challenges with wood pellets as an alternative option. The transportation of pellets presents a significant volume challenge, as an additional ship would be required, leading to considerable costs. Distribution would also be problematic, as several cubic meters of pellets would need to be transferred from a central warehouse to each individual dwelling. Furthermore, a storage facility adjacent to the houses would be necessary to replace the existing fuel tanks, and this facility would need to be at least four times larger than current storage capacities. Effective humidity control would be essential in the storage facility to prevent the pellets from becoming damp, which could adversely affect the system’s performance. One potential solution could be to install a pellet boiler at the power plant to generate electricity and implement electric heating; however, this would likely introduce efficiency issues, potentially undermining the effectiveness of the solution. Additionally, the northern limits of the forests restrict local sourcing [61]. This dependence on transportation increases the associated CO₂ emissions.

Natural gas presents a viable alternative to fuel oil, with a lower carbon content of 49.863 kgCO_2eq./GJ compared to 71.032 kgCO_2eq./GJ for fuel oil. Nevertheless, storing and handling natural gas pose significant challenges due to its cryogenic nature, which is not well-suited to northern infrastructure. As a result, natural gas can emit more CO₂ than fuel oil to meet equivalent heating needs. It becomes cost-effective only when used in very large volumes, as it is four times less expensive than fuel oil [62].

Waste gasification offers an appealing solution for both energy production and waste management [63]. In Kuujjuaq, approximately 1616 t of waste are generated annually. Utilizing waste gasification for residential heating could potentially meet the heating needs of 189 households.

Gunawan et al. [64] assessed the shallow geothermal potential by evaluating four geothermal heat pump (GHP) scenarios for a residential building in Kuujjuaq. These scenarios included three using vapor-compression heat pumps and one using an absorption heat pump (ABS). The reference system for comparison was a diesel boiler with an efficiency of 78%. The coefficients of performance (COPs) were assumed to be constant, with COP = 3.1 for the vapor-compression heat pumps and COP = 1.2 for the absorption heat pump. The efficiency of the local thermal power plant was assumed to be 33.2%. The simulations were conducted for a 252 m² residential building with a heating load of 71,343 kWh (equivalent to 8174.7 L of diesel) for five occupants. The study found that at a 100 m borehole depth, it is possible to extract 58.4 kWh/m, 66.3 kWh/m at 200 m, and 76.3 kWh/m at 300 m. Their study results indicate that over a 50-year life cycle, all four evaluated scenarios offer advantages compared to the existing configuration. Case 2A, which incorporates 26 photovoltaic solar panels, significantly reduces fossil fuel dependency, decreasing CO₂ emissions from 28.5 t CO_2eq with the diesel boiler to 18 t CO_2eq with the compression heat pump at a 300 m drilling depth [33]. Case 2B, utilizing 37 photovoltaic panels, provides even greater reductions in CO₂ emissions compared to Case 2A, achieving up to a 50% reduction with a 100 m borehole. By contrast, Scenarios 3 and 4 showed minimal improvements due to their continued reliance on diesel. Case 2C approximates the CO₂ emissions of the diesel boiler (25.5 t CO_2eq) because it uses electricity from the thermal power plant, which has a low efficiency of 33.2%. This makes using plant-generated electricity for geothermal heat pumps economically impractical and potentially costly for users. Furthermore, these systems cannot operate year-round, rendering the use of solar panels for continuous electricity generation overly ambitious. It is also worth noting that maintaining constant COPs for heat pumps over long heating periods is challenging.

B.

Whapmagoostui–Kuujjuarapik

To minimize the use of fossil fuels in the heating systems of two buildings, Hubert L. et al. [65] conducted an in-depth comparative study over a 20-year life cycle, evaluating existing oil-fired boilers, compression heat pumps, and absorption heat pumps coupled with photovoltaic solar panels. Their study found that oil-fired boilers emit 241.1 t of CO₂ for a single building and 426.3 t for two buildings over 20 years. By switching to heat pumps paired with photovoltaic solar panels that provide at least 80% of the electricity, they achieved a 60% reduction in CO₂ emissions for one building and a 40% reduction for two buildings. Their findings also indicated that scenarios using absorption heat pumps with a borehole thermal energy storage system are more polluting compared to compression heat pumps coupled with photovoltaic solar panels. These results demonstrate that geothermal energy can be both economically beneficial and environmentally friendly, which makes it a promising alternative for the Nordic community’s energy transition. Additionally, Jiang [66] performed a technical and economic feasibility study of geothermal technologies in Kuujjuaq, revealing that, despite considerable geological uncertainties, geothermal energy has the potential to replace current heating systems.

On the other hand, although geothermal heat pumps have potential in some Nordic villages, there are some extremely important practical aspects to consider. The lowest operating limit for a geothermal heat pump is around −6.7 °C [67]. The CAN/CSA-C448 standard [68] governing geothermal systems using heat pump technology recommends a minimum fluid temperature at the heat pump inlet, depending on the subsoil. For example, when the subsoil temperature is 6 °C, the minimum temperature at the heat pump inlet would be −4 °C, while at 12 °C, it would be 0 °C. This can present a major challenge in reaching these subsoil temperatures in Northern Quebec. Majorowicz and Minea [69], in their study of geothermal energy potential in low-enthalpy areas, have shown that greater depth is required to reach significant ground temperatures (see Figure 5). And the deeper the well, the higher the cost.

4. Renewable Energy Alternatives for Power Generation

This section focuses on examining the prospects, current status, and potential of renewable energy alternatives to fossil fuels for off-grid communities’ power plants, with a particular emphasis on Nunavik. Various renewable energy options, including geothermal, solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, are being explored as viable alternatives. Geothermal energy, in particular, shows promise due to the region’s relatively high undisturbed ground temperatures, which make it suitable for ground-source heat pumps and other geothermal technologies. Fontaine et al. [70] discovered that installing heat exchangers at a depth of 2.5 m is effective in maintaining frozen ground conditions throughout the summer while simultaneously fulfilling the building’s heating requirements. As mentioned earlier, maintaining permafrost stability is crucial, as thawing can lead to ground instability, which is a significant concern in Arctic regions, where structural integrity is vital. In addition, solar photovoltaic systems, despite the limited sunlight during winter months, can complement other renewable sources. Wind energy also holds potential due to the region’s favorable wind conditions, and small-scale hydroelectric projects may offer further opportunities. These alternatives, supported by technological advancements and policy initiatives, have the potential to lessen the reliance on fossil fuels and support the transition toward a sustainable energy future in Nunavik and other comparable off-grid communities.

4.1. Prospects for Renewable Energy Alternatives

In 2017, Karanasios and Parker [71] reviewed the electrical systems of Nunavik communities, previous clean electricity schemes, and the potential renewable energies present for power supply. Their study highlights the importance of improving building efficiency in Nunavik. One key aspect discussed is the integration of wind power with existing diesel systems, which can contribute to reduced diesel consumption and a decline in GHG emissions. Additionally, the paper emphasizes the need for proper insulation and ventilation in buildings to enhance energy efficiency. The successful implementation of community-scale wind projects, such as the one at Raglan Mine, demonstrates the potential for significant energy savings and improved building performance in these remote communities. Yan et al. [60] conducted a multi-criteria analysis that considered environmental, social, and economic factors to assess alternative heating energy systems—specifically, natural gas, biomass, and domestic waste gasification—for a typical residence in Kuujjuaq, Nunavik, Canada. Their findings indicated that wood pellet-based systems consistently ranked highest across all evaluated scenarios, despite the elevated CO₂ emissions associated with pellet transportation by truck and ship. Pike and Kummert [72] evaluated the use of a district heating system to capture and utilize waste heat produced by the generating station in Whapmagoostui–Kuujjuarapik (Nunavik, Canada). Their results showed that boilers achieve a reduction of over 55% in the annual heating load they need to meet, as well as a 27% reduction in GHG emissions.

In areas with strong wind potential but limited solar availability during winter, hybrid wind–diesel systems offer the most practical path for reducing diesel reliance without compromising energy security. These systems can stabilize power delivery where battery storage remains cost-prohibitive or untested in Arctic field conditions. This highlights the significant potential of district heating as an alternative energy strategy for fossil fuel-dependent communities, particularly until battery energy storage systems become more economically viable. Overall, wood pellets appear to be one of the most promising heating alternatives to fossil fuels in Northern Quebec. However, further research is needed to overcome the challenges embedded within biomass import dependency and to optimize their integration with existing and future renewable energy systems. In communities where wood pellet imports are logistically difficult, district heating systems that utilize local waste heat recovery, as seen in Whapmagoostui–Kuujjuarapik, provide a resilient and low-emission solution that reduces dependency on external fuel sources. For biomass to serve as a viable long-term solution, strategies for local pellet production or improved supply coordination are necessary.

Northern Canada holds considerable theoretical potential for solar energy utilization, as it receives annual solar radiation levels comparable to those in southern regions [73]. By optimizing passive solar design elements, substantial energy savings can be achieved with minimal added costs. However, current housing design practices in northern Canada typically overlook key parameters such as window orientation, window sizing, and thermal mass, which are crucial for maximizing solar heat gains [74]. This highlights a critical design oversight. For communities like Kuujjuaq, where passive solar availability aligns better with spring and fall heating loads, reorienting window placement and integrating thermal mass in wall design could reduce space heating demand with minimal added construction cost.

Ma et al. [75] assessed the effectiveness of both passive and active solar strategies in improving energy efficiency in northern communities such as Yellowknife, Kuujjuaq, and Resolute. Their study found that integrating air-based BIPV/T systems with HVAC equipment could reduce heating energy demand in Kuujjuaq by up to 27% without requiring additional capital investment. Although these systems help reduce the defrosting requirements of HRVs and extend their operational periods, overall energy savings remained below 3% due to a mismatch between solar energy availability and heating demand. In such cases, combining solar systems with auxiliary biomass or geothermal heat sources could ensure year-round thermal coverage while minimizing system oversizing or inefficiencies during dark winter periods.

A separate techno-economic and environmental evaluation by Hachchadi et al. [76] compared flat-plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors, and photovoltaic solar water heating systems in Montreal and Kuujjuaq. Their findings suggested that solar PV water heaters outperform solar thermal systems in cold climates from a cost-efficiency standpoint, despite having a larger environmental footprint. Nevertheless, these systems could achieve carbon neutrality by offsetting emissions from fuel oil-based heating in Kuujjuaq. Stringer and Joanis [77] created an optimization framework to estimate the cost of decarbonizing off-grid Canadian communities using solar and wind energy technologies, including associated storage costs. Their analysis indicated that wind power was the most cost-effective option for most communities in 2020 but projected that solar energy would surpass wind by 2050 as the more economical solution. The study also recommended prioritizing larger and fly-in communities that currently depend on diesel or heavy fuels, whereas those using natural gas could delay decarbonization until cleaner energy technologies become more financially viable. In summary, solar energy optimization and integration in northern Canada offers significant potential for reducing heating loads and decarbonizing remote, off-grid communities. However, additional research and enhancements in system design are required to fully realize this potential. These findings imply that for communities currently relying on diesel, front-loading investments in wind energy paired with limited battery support may offer the best cost–emissions tradeoff today, alongside planning for solar upgrades in the coming decades as costs drop and efficiency improves.

4.2. Current Renewable Energy Projects in Northern Quebec

Energy efficiency in buildings is a major challenge for achieving a decarbonized Nordic community. However, decarbonizing the residential sector in northern communities also necessitates enhancing the performance of thermal power plants, which currently have an efficiency below 50%. In response, Hydro-Québec has begun integrating renewable energy sources into its stand-alone networks as part of its 2023–2032 supply plan. Several northern villages have already incorporated renewable energy into their power plants, with more projects under development [67].

In 2022, Hydro-Québec connected the village of Romaine and the community of Unamen Shipu to the main power grid. This connection significantly reduces diesel dependency, eliminating up to 4 million liters of diesel per year and potentially avoiding up to 10,000 t of CO₂ emissions. This marks a significant advancement in the region’s energy transition [78].

A 7.5 MW hydroelectric power station was installed in Inukjuak in 2023, designed by Innergex/Pituvik. This station aims to reduce the village’s diesel consumption by 80% and is expected to lower greenhouse gas emissions by 700,000 t over 40 years [79,80,81].

In 2020, Hydro-Québec received authorization to establish a hybrid renewable energy power plant in Tasiujaq. The plant will feature three 575 kW generators and 10 kW of solar panels [82,83].

The Kuujjuarapik Whapmagoostui Renewable Energy Corporation, in collaboration with Hydro-Québec, will install two 1 MW wind turbines for Whapmagoostui and Kuujjuarapik. The project aims to meet 40% of the communities’ electricity needs, saving 1.2 million liters of diesel annually and reducing CO₂ emissions by 3200 t per year over the next 25 years. The turbines are scheduled for commissioning in 2025 [84].

In Quaqtaq, 80 solar panels, representing 2% of the thermal power plant’s output (21 kW), will reduce diesel consumption by 5000 L annually [85].

Nunavik’s smallest community, Aupaluk, with a population of 230, is set to benefit from Hydro-Québec’s investment plan for off-grid systems, which includes the construction of a hybrid diesel–ORC (Organic Rankine Cycle)–solar power plant. Completion is scheduled for 2027 [86].

4.3. Potential Renewable Energy Resources in Northern Quebec

4.3.1. River Current Energy (Run-of-River Hydropower Energy)

Run-of-river (RoR) hydropower has emerged as a sustainable energy solution worldwide. Different communities have successfully adopted RoR projects to replace diesel and achieve energy independence. These projects have not only provided clean energy but also promoted local governance and job creation, which are critical for long-term community benefits [87]. The integration of traditional knowledge with modern renewable technologies has further enhanced the cultural and environmental sustainability of these projects [88].

The Pic River First Nation in Ontario exemplifies the success of RoR projects in Indigenous communities. Their initiatives demonstrate how Indigenous-led projects can foster economic development, reduce fossil fuel reliance, and maintain environmental stewardship [89]. Other Canadian Indigenous communities, such as those in British Columbia, have also followed suit by implementing RoR projects in collaboration with private and public partners. These projects balance economic benefits with ecological preservation, as seen in the Douglas First Nation’s endeavors [90,91]. However, financial, regulatory, and land-use challenges remain significant barriers to broader adoption [92]. Globally, non-Indigenous communities, particularly in Turkey [93], have explored RoR technology to meet renewable energy targets. While these projects offer benefits such as lower environmental impacts, they often face conflicts over land and resource allocation, highlighting the need for careful planning and equitable resource management [94].

RoR hydroelectric energy could be a promising energy resource for most of the communities in the 14 villages of Nunavik based on the current successful running project in Inukjuak. According to [95], the Innavik initiative involves a 7.5 MW RoR hydroelectric plant that delivers renewable energy to the community of Inukjuak in Nunavik. By doing so, it reduces the community’s reliance on diesel fuel for electricity, space heating, and hot water by approximately 80%. Driven by local efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions, the project is expected to produce meaningful social and economic benefits for Inukjuak, which, as Nunavik’s second-largest settlement, is home to around 1800 residents.

According to the Atlas of Canada database [96], there is great river current energy potential in the 14 villages of Nunavik (see

Table 5. River current energy potential in the 14 villages of Nunavik [96].

No	Villages	Population	Total Fossil Fuel Generating Capacity (kW)	Annual Fossil Fuel Generation (MWh/yr)	River Current Energy Potential (kW)
1	Kuujjuarapik	686	3405	12,257	5000–10,000
2	Umiujaq	442	1050	2989	5000–10,000
3	Inukjuak	1757	3758	10,269	5000–10,000
4	Puvirnituq	1779	4750	11,962	1000–5000
5	Akulivik	633	2019	3801	500–1000
6	Ivujivik	414	980	2373	500–1000
7	Salluit	1483	1878	8326	500–1000
8	Kangiqsujuaq	750	NA	NA	500–1000
9	Quaqtaq	403	1085	2863	100–500
10	Kangirsuk	567	1460	3601	5000–10,000

and Figure 6), which could reduce the dependency of the communities on fossil fuels. It is visible that in the third row, for Inukjuak, the average river current energy potential shown by the atlas is consistent with the Innavik project. This consistency supports the planning of potential future projects, such as the establishment of new RoR hydroelectric facilities in remote communities in Northern Quebec.

4.3.2. Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that harnesses the movement of water caused by tidal changes to generate electricity. Tidal power is highly predictable compared to other renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar, as the movement of tides is influenced by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, creating regular and consistent cycles. Technologies used for tidal energy generation include tidal barrages, tidal stream generators, and tidal lagoons, which capture either potential energy from tidal height differences or kinetic energy from tidal currents. The deployment of these technologies faces several challenges, including high costs, environmental impacts, and integration with national power grids, but it holds significant potential for clean energy generation in coastal regions [97].

Different research has investigated the potential of tidal energy in the Indigenous communities of Canada. Nova Scotia has been a focal point for tidal energy development, particularly in the Bay of Fundy, known for its world-leading tidal range. Significant attention has been given to large-scale tidal projects in this region, but recent shifts toward smaller-scale developments are seen as more appropriate for rural and coastal communities, including Indigenous groups. These smaller systems are easier to install and maintain, offering an adaptable solution to energy needs in remote areas [98,99]. Eleven off-grid communities in British Columbia, including several First Nations, have been identified as potential candidates for tidal power generation (TPG) due to their proximity to significant tidal resources. The Blind Channel TPG project has demonstrated the feasibility of tidal energy in these remote areas, highlighting its potential to reduce diesel reliance and environmental impact [100,101,102].

There is significant tidal energy potential in some of the 14 villages of Nunavik, according to the Atlas of Canada data [95]. As indicated in Figure 7 and

Table 6. Tidal energy resource potential in the 14 villages of Nunavik [95].

No	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Village	Kuujjuarapik	Umiujaq	Inukjuak	Puvirnituq	Akulivik	Ivujivik	Salluit
Tidal energy (MW)	0	0	0	0	0	>5000	0
No	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
Village	Kangiqsujuaq	Quaqtaq	Kangirsuk	Aupaluk	Tasiujaq	Kuujjuaq	Kangiqsualujjuaq
Tidal energy (MW)	0	0	225–550	>5000	>5000	125–250	200–500

, the highest potential for utilizing renewable tidal energy as part of an alternative plan for decarbonizing Northern Quebec’s remote communities is evident in Ivujivik, Aupaluk, and Tasiujaq. These villages have a tidal energy resource potential with a mean potential power exceeding 5000 MW.

4.3.3. Solar Energy

Global horizontal irradiance (GHI) data, which measures the amount of solar energy received on a horizontal surface, is a tool for assessing solar energy potential. Solar photovoltaic systems have proven to be effective in providing renewable energy to off-grid communities, reducing dependence on diesel generators. Recent projects in Canada’s remote Indigenous communities, particularly in the Northwest Territories, demonstrate the viability of solar energy systems, where solar PV has been integrated into local energy grids, resulting in up to 20% of local generation capacity in some areas [103]. In Fort Chipewyan, Alberta, the implementation of a solar energy and battery storage project has resulted in significant reductions in diesel consumption. This project, owned by a collaboration of three Indigenous groups, demonstrates how solar energy can contribute to energy sovereignty and lower greenhouse gas emissions by reducing reliance on diesel by 650,000 L annually [104]. In addition, there are many other case studies working on the potential of solar energy as an alternative for off-grid communities across the globe [105,106,107,108,109].

According to the Atlas of Canada data [95], 3 of the 14 villages in Nunavik have notable potential to benefit from GHI. As demonstrated in Figure 8 and

Table 7. Global horizontal irradiance potential in the 14 villages of Nunavik [95].

No	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Village	Kuujjuarapik	Umiujaq	Inukjuak	Puvirnituq	Akulivik	Ivujivik	Salluit
GHI (kWh/m2/y)	1051–1100	1001–1050	0	0	0	0	0
No	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
Village	Kangiqsujuaq	Quaqtaq	Kangirsuk	Aupaluk	Tasiujaq	Kuujjuaq	Kangiqsualujjuaq
GHI (kWh/m2/y)	0	0	0	0	0	824–1000	0

, the village with the highest potential is Kuujjuarapik, with GHI values in the range of 1051–1100 kWh/m²/year. This is followed by Umiujaq, which falls within the 1001–1050 kWh/m²/year range, and Kuujjuaq, which has a GHI range of 824–1000 kWh/m²/year.

4.3.4. Wind Energy

Wind energy has become an essential resource for reducing diesel dependency in remote and off-grid Indigenous communities across Canada [110]. According to the study by Weis and Ilinca [111], in Canada, there are 89 villages with wind speeds recorded at a minimum of 5.0 m/s, which indicates their potential for future remote wind energy applications. However, without financial incentives, only 10 of these villages are economically viable for wind–diesel hybrid projects. If an incentive rate of $0.15/kWh were introduced, this number could rise to 62. At a practical deployment rate, wind energy projects could benefit about half of these villages within the next decade.

The wind energy project at Raglan Mine stands as a leading example of wind power deployment in Nunavik. In August 2018, the mine commissioned its second wind turbine, reinforcing its shift toward renewable energy sources. Combined, the two turbines are projected to supply roughly 10% of the site’s total energy demand. This development is anticipated to reduce annual diesel consumption by approximately 4.4 million liters and cut greenhouse gas emissions by nearly 12,000 t—comparable to removing 2700 vehicles from the road each year. The integration of these wind turbines into the mine’s electrical grid has been a critical step toward reducing its reliance on diesel fuel and lowering its environmental impact [112]. Other projects, such as the Burchill Wind Energy Project, a collaboration between Tobique First Nation and Natural Forces, illustrate the potential for wind energy to provide clean and renewable power to regions historically reliant on diesel. This project is expected to produce 42 MW of clean energy, significantly contributing to the region’s energy grid modernization while reducing carbon emissions [113]. Furthermore, research indicates that wind energy, when integrated with energy storage systems, can provide a consistent and reliable energy supply throughout the year, especially in remote regions with high wind potential. Indigenous-led projects, such as those in Alberta and Ontario, are increasingly focusing on wind energy to achieve sustainable development and reduce dependence on diesel [114].

The integration of wind energy with energy storage systems has proven successful, especially in regions with consistent wind patterns, allowing communities to transition away from diesel fuel. This model is prevalent not only in Canada but also in off-grid locations globally. In Peru, for example, hybrid photovoltaic–wind microgrids have been implemented in rural areas to support rural electrification [115]. Similarly, studies have highlighted how islands in the Netherlands [116] and remote areas of South Australia [117] have utilized wind power alongside solar energy and storage systems to achieve energy self-sufficiency. In addition, numerous case studies highlight the successful implementation of wind energy in off-grid communities around the world [118,119,120].

According to the data from the Atlas of Canada [95], there is significant wind energy potential in the 14 villages of Nunavik (refer to

Table 8. Wind power density potential in the 14 villages of Nunavik [95].

No	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Village	Kuujjuarapik	Umiujaq	Inukjuak	Puvirnituq	Akulivik	Ivujivik	Salluit
Wind power density at 80 m (W/m2)	601–800	601–800	401–500	401–500	401–500	801–2000	2001–2985
No	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
Village	Kangiqsujuaq	Quaqtaq	Kangirsuk	Aupaluk	Tasiujaq	Kuujjuaq	Kangiqsualujjuaq
Wind power density at 80 m (W/m2)	2001–2985	601–800	601–800	601–800	601–800	401–500	601–800

and Figure 9), which makes it a viable alternative to reduce reliance on fossil fuels for these off-grid communities. The wind power density is highest in the villages of Salluit and Kangiqsujuaq, located near Raglan Mine, with wind power density at 80 m above ground ranging between 2001 and 2985 W/m². This indicates strong wind potential, making these areas well suited for wind energy development.

4.3.5. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy exploration in Canada has been ongoing for decades, driven by its cold climate and the need for renewable energy, but progress has been hindered by regulatory complexities and competition from cheaper energy sources. As of January 2023, no geothermal power projects are operational, though ground source heat pumps and hot spring facilities remain active. Recently, interest in deep geothermal systems has grown, with new projects emerging and previously stalled developments, like Mount Meager, resuming. Research is expanding, supported by federal and provincial governments, with a focus on new technologies and hybrid systems. Despite challenges, progress in research, funding, and regulation is moving Canada closer to geothermal energy development [121].

Geothermal energy presents a significant opportunity to transition remote northern communities away from their reliance on fossil fuels, particularly in regions like Nunavik, Northern Quebec. Several studies highlight the potential of both shallow and deep geothermal systems in these areas. Research conducted in Whapmagoostui–Kuujjuarapik demonstrates that borehole heat exchangers can effectively meet low heating demands, while borehole thermal energy storage systems can balance annual ground loads to satisfy higher, unbalanced heating needs [65]. Similarly, a study in Kuujjuaq evaluated the feasibility of ground-coupled heat pumps, revealing that these systems, when combined with solar photovoltaic panels, offer a financially attractive alternative to diesel-based heating, with significant cost and emission reductions [64]. These findings suggest that geothermal energy could serve as a reliable and sustainable heating solution in subarctic regions.

Broader research initiatives across northern Canada, including the Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Nunavik, are assessing the feasibility of geothermal technologies. These studies demonstrate the potential for substantial carbon reductions and economic benefits for northern communities through both shallow and deep geothermal systems [122]. However, challenges remain due to the absence of deep borehole data and the uncertainty surrounding subsurface conditions. To address these issues, theoretical and first-order assessments have been employed. For example, in Nunavik, sensitivity analyses were conducted using Monte Carlo methods to estimate geothermal potential under various uncertain scenarios, with results indicating that deep geothermal energy could meet community heating demands at lower costs than traditional diesel-based systems [123,124,125]. Despite these uncertainties, these studies emphasize the importance of geothermal energy as a long-term solution for northern communities.

In addition to community-scale applications, geothermal technologies are being explored in industrial settings, such as the Éléonore mine in Northern Quebec. A geothermal heat pump system was designed for the mine’s dewatering system, demonstrating that such systems could supply 39% of the mine’s heating needs, resulting in a 33% reduction in heating costs and significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions [126]. Furthermore, it is necessary to illustrate the importance of innovative approaches to geothermal resource assessment in remote regions where data limitations are significant [127,128]. By using shallow subsurface data, surface analogs, and advanced laboratory techniques, these studies have shown that geothermal resources in regions like Kuujjuaq can meet the community’s annual heating needs, even in the absence of deep borehole data. Collectively, these findings underscore the potential of geothermal energy as a sustainable and viable alternative to fossil fuels, supporting the energy transition of remote northern communities in Canada.

Undisturbed ground temperature is a key factor in geothermal energy systems, as it provides a stable heat source unaffected by seasonal variations. This temperature, reached at a specific depth, allows for the efficient operation of ground-source heat pumps and borehole heat exchangers. Accurate determination of the undisturbed ground temperature and its depth is essential for optimizing system design, particularly in regions with high heating demands, where the geothermal gradient further influences energy extraction [129]. According to the Atlas of Canada [95], the 14 villages in Nunavik exhibit significant geothermal potential due to relatively high undisturbed ground temperatures. Figure 10 and

Table 9. Undisturbed ground temperatures in the 14 villages of Nunavik [95].

No	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Village	Kuujjuarapik	Umiujaq	Inukjuak	Puvirnituq	Akulivik	Ivujivik	Salluit
Undisturbed ground temperature (°C)	0 to 1	−2 to −1	−2 to −1	−4 to −3	−4 to −3	−4 to −3	−4 to −3
No	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
Village	Kangiqsujuaq	Quaqtaq	Kangirsuk	Aupaluk	Tasiujaq	Kuujjuaq	Kangiqsualujjuaq
Undisturbed ground temperature (°C)	−4 to −3	−4 to −3	−4 to −3	−2 to −1	−2 to −1	−2 to −1	−4 to −3

present these temperatures, with the highest recorded in Kuujjuarapik (0 °C to 1 °C), followed by Umiujaq, Inukjuak, Aupaluk, Tasiujaq, and Kuujjuaq (−2 °C to −1 °C). The remaining villages, including Puvirnituq, Akulivik, Ivujivik, Salluit, Kangiqsujuaq, Quaqtaq, Kangirsuk, and Kangiqsualujjuaq, show temperatures ranging between −4 °C and −3 °C. This gradient highlights the geothermal energy potential across Nunavik.

Improving building energy efficiency directly supports the integration of renewable energy systems by reducing overall energy demand, particularly for space heating, which represents a major portion of energy use in Nunavik. For instance, the prototype house in Quaqtaq demonstrated that enhanced insulation and heating upgrades led to over a 54% reduction in energy consumption compared to standard models. This reduction in demand allows renewable systems such as geothermal heat pumps and solar PV to operate more effectively at smaller scales. Gunawan et al. [64] showed that coupling improved building performance with a 300 m borehole and photovoltaic panels reduced CO₂ emissions from 28.5 to 18 t annually. Similarly, Pike and Kummert [72] reported that waste heat recovery systems could reduce heating loads by over 55% and GHG emissions by 27%. These examples underscore the synergy between demand-side improvements and supply-side strategies, which together enhance the economic and environmental viability of renewable energy deployment in off-grid northern communities.

Different renewable energy technologies offer distinct trade-offs in terms of capital cost, emissions reduction, technical feasibility, and community acceptability in Nunavik. Wood pellets, for instance, are well aligned with community interests and can utilize national forestry residues, but their dependence on costly transportation and large storage requirements poses logistical challenges. Solar PV is more easily deployable and relatively low in cost, but its seasonal limitations in winter reduce its year-round effectiveness. Wind energy, as seen in the Raglan Mine project and the planned installations in Kuujjuarapik, has proven effective in reducing diesel use but requires careful management of intermittency and storage. Geothermal systems offer long-term reliability and substantial emissions reductions, with some scenarios achieving up to a 50% decrease in CO₂ emissions, yet they involve higher upfront costs and face uncertainties related to deep subsurface conditions. Run-of-river hydro, exemplified by the Innavik project in Inukjuak, demonstrates the highest emissions-reduction potential and strong community support, but its feasibility depends heavily on geography and water flow availability.

Overall, the selection of appropriate technologies for Nunavik must consider both technical performance and contextual factors such as housing types, community preferences, fuel logistics, and seasonal variations in demand and resource availability. Rather than a one-size-fits-all approach, combining locally adapted solutions—such as pairing energy efficiency upgrades with small-scale PV or geothermal systems—can help optimize both environmental and economic outcomes.

5. Conclusions

This review explores the key challenges and potential pathways for decarbonizing off-grid Indigenous communities in Northern Quebec, with an emphasis on enhancing building energy performance and adopting renewable energy technologies. The region’s heavy reliance on fossil fuels—particularly diesel—leads to considerable greenhouse gas emissions, which highlights the critical need for a shift toward more sustainable energy alternatives. This analysis examines the viability of several renewable energy options, including solar, wind, geothermal, and run-of-river hydro systems, while also addressing major obstacles such as logistical difficulties, social considerations, and limited data availability for accurate energy modeling. The primary conclusions are summarized as follows:

• Enhancing the thermal performance of building envelopes is a critical first step toward reducing energy consumption in cold-climate regions like Nunavik. Super-insulated walls, the elimination of infiltration and thermal bridges, and the adoption of advanced ventilation systems are essential for maintaining indoor comfort while minimizing energy demand. These improvements can substantially reduce reliance on fossil fuels for heating. For example, retrofits incorporating RSI 6–8 wall assemblies and heat recovery ventilators in Kuujjuaq housing prototypes have demonstrated annual heating energy reductions exceeding 45%.
• Wood pellets present a viable renewable alternative to traditional fossil fuel heating systems. Given the availability of forestry residues in Canada, wood pellet systems are environmentally friendly and could offer a sustainable option for remote communities. However, challenges related to transportation, storage, and the dependency on external biomass imports need to be addressed for large-scale adoption.
• Solar photovoltaics, while limited by the region’s winter conditions, can still complement other renewable sources, particularly in summer, considerably reducing fuel consumption during this season. Wind energy, particularly in areas with favorable wind conditions, such as Nunavik, has proven successful in reducing diesel dependency through hybrid wind–diesel systems. These technologies can significantly reduce carbon emissions, especially when paired with energy storage solutions. In Nunavik, the Raglan Mine’s wind–diesel system has achieved a 10% reduction in diesel use, offering a replicable model for other communities with high wind potential.
• Geothermal systems, both shallow and deep, offer reliable heating solutions for northern communities. Ground-source heat pumps, combined with photovoltaic systems, could dramatically reduce greenhouse gas emissions and heating costs in the long term. However, further exploration and data collection are needed to fully understand the geothermal potential in specific northern areas.
• Run-of-river hydropower has emerged as a promising renewable energy resource, particularly in regions like Inukjuak, where projects have successfully reduced diesel use by 80%. The high river current energy potential in other Nunavik villages also supports the development of future run-of-river projects, which could contribute to the overall energy transition of the region. The Inukjuak run-of-river project alone has displaced over 400,000 L of diesel annually, which highlights the measurable impact of hydro-based systems in reducing GHG emissions.
• A major obstacle in achieving energy efficiency goals is the lack of comprehensive data on thermal energy demands, particularly for non-residential buildings in these remote areas. Addressing these data gaps through targeted research and better energy modeling is crucial for the successful implementation of renewable energy systems and the optimization of building designs.
• It is essential to incorporate Indigenous knowledge and perspectives into the energy transition process. Indigenous communities have deep connections to the land, and their involvement in the planning, development, and management of renewable energy projects ensures that the solutions are culturally appropriate and environmentally sustainable.

In conclusion, the path to decarbonization for Northern Quebec’s Indigenous communities involves a combination of building efficiency improvements and the integration of diverse renewable energy systems. Addressing the logistical, economic, and technical challenges identified in this review, alongside greater collaboration with Indigenous communities, will be key to creating a sustainable, low-carbon future for these remote regions. Tailored solutions must reflect the unique climatic, logistical, and infrastructural realities of each community, rather than relying on generalized models.

Future research should adopt an integrated approach that addresses the technical, environmental, and socio-cultural dimensions of decarbonization in Northern Quebec. Priorities include (1) collecting high-resolution thermal demand data—especially for non-residential buildings—to enable accurate and context-specific energy modeling; (2) validating the long-term performance, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of hybrid renewable energy systems under Arctic field conditions; (3) developing standardized yet adaptable retrofit strategies that reflect the unique climatic and cultural needs of Indigenous housing; and (4) advancing community-led planning tools that incorporate Indigenous knowledge systems, promote data sovereignty, and ensure culturally appropriate energy transitions.