Renewable Energy and Governance Resilience in the Gulf
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Background, Framework, and Research Hypotheses
3. Results of the Nexus between Renewable Energy and Monarchial Resilience
3.1. Renewable Energy and Neopatrimonialist Structures
3.1.1. Utility-Scale Renewable Power
3.1.2. Structure of Special Purpose Vehicles
3.1.3. Limited Role for Distributed Energy
3.2. Renewable Energy and Revenue Streams
3.3. Renewable Energy and the Exogenous Environment
4. Intra-Gulf Differences in Renewable Energy Deployment
5. Conclusions and Discussion
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bloomberg. Covid Resilience Ranking; 27 October ed.; Bloomberg: Manhattan, NY, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- World Bank. The Worldwide Governance Indicators; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Raleigh, C.; Linke, A.; Hegre, H.; Karlsen, J. Introducing ACLED: An armed conflict location and event dataset: Special data feature. J. Peace Res. 2010, 47, 651–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tagliapietra, S. The Political Economy of Middle East and North Africa oil Exporters in Times of Global Decarbonisation; Bruegel: Brussels, Belgium, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Soummane, S.; Ghersi, F.; Lefèvre, J. Macroeconomic Pathways of the Saudi Economy: The Challenge of Global Mitigation Action versus the Opportunity of National Energy Reforms. Energy Policy 2019, 130, 263–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coffin, M.; Dalman, A.; Grant, A. Beyond Petrostates; Carbon Tracker Initiative: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- WRI. Aqueduct Country Rankings; World Resources Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Lelieveld, J.; Proestos, Y.; Hadjinicolaou, P.; Tanarhte, M.; Tyrlis, E.; Zittis, G. Strongly increasing heat extremes in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) in the 21st century. Clim. Change 2016, 137, 245–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ESMAP Regulatory Indicators for Sustainable Energy 2022: Building Resilience; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2022.
- WEC. World Energy Trilemma Index; World Energy Council: London, UK, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- ND-GAIN. ND-GAIN Country Index; University of Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative: Notre Dame, IN, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Hinnebusch, R. Syria: From ‘authoritarian upgrading’ to revolution? Int. Aff. 2012, 88, 95–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boix, C. Democracy, Development, and the International System. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 2011, 105, 809–828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bader, J.; Faust, J. Foreign Aid, Democratization, and Autocratic Survival. Int. Stud. Rev. 2014, 16, 575–595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lührmann, A.; Lindberg, S.I. Lindberg A third wave of autocratization is here: What is new about it? Democratization 2019, 26, 1095–1113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsourapas, G. Global Autocracies: Strategies of Transnational Repression, Legitimation, and Co-Optation in World Politics. Int. Stud. Rev. 2021, 23, 616–644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levitsky, S.; Way, L.A. The New Competitive Authoritarianism. J. Democr. 2020, 31, 51–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clulow, Z.; Reiner, D.M. Democracy, Economic Development and Low-Carbon Energy: When and Why Does Democratization Promote Energy Transition? Sustainability 2022, 14, 13213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sullivan, P. Under the Volcano: Geothermal is Key to Saudi Arabia’s Energy Future; Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington: Washington, DC, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Heydemann, S. Networks of Privilege: Rethinking the Politics of Economic Reform in the Middle East. In Networks of Privilege in the Middle East: The Politics of Economic Reform Revisited; Heydemann, S., Ed.; Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke, UK, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Schlumberger, O. Structural adjustment, economic order, and development: Patrimonial capitalism. Rev. Int. Political Econ. 2008, 5, 622–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Almezaini, K. Private Sector Actors in the UAE and Their Role in the Process of Economic and Political Reform. In Business Politics in the Middle East; Hertog, S., Luciani, G., Valeri, M., Eds.; Hurst & Company: London, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Hertog, S. State and private sector in the GCC after the Arab uprisings. J. Arab. Stud. 2014, 3, 174–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Warren, D.H. Rivals in the Gulf: Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Abdullah Bin Bayyah, and the Qatar-UAE Contest Over the Arab Spring and the Gulf Crisis; Routledge: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Herb, M. The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE; Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Heydemann, S. Upgrading Authoritarianism in the Arab World; Brookings: Washington, DC, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Lucas, R.E. Monarchical Authoritarianism: Survival and Political Liberalization in a Middle Eastern Regime Type. Int. J. Middle East Stud. 2004, 36, 103–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Rasheed, M. Modernizing Authoritarian Rule in Saudi Arabia. Contemp. Arab Aff. 2009, 2, 587–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karolak, M. Authoritarian Upgrading and the “Pink Wave”: Bahraini Women in Electoral Politics. Contemp. Arab Aff. 2021, 14, 79–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Young, K.E. The Political Economy of Energy, Finance, and Security in United Arab Emirates: Between the Majlis and the Market; Palgrave: Basingstoke, UK, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Braunstein, J. Domestic Sources of Twenty-first century Geopolitics: Domestic Politics and Sovereign Wealth Funds in GCC Economies. New Political Econ. 2019, 24, 197–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mogielnicki, R. A Political Economy of Free Zones in Gulf Arab States; Palgrave: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Ennis, C.A. The Gendered Complexities of Promoting Female Entrepreneurship in the Gulf. New Political Econ. 2019, 24, 365–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanieh, A. Money, Markets, and Monarchies: The Gulf Cooperation Council and the Political Economy of the Contemporary Middle East; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Mirgani, S. Introduction: Art and Cultural Production in the GCC. J. Arab. Stud. 2017, 7, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ennis, C.A. Reading entrepreneurial power in small Gulf states: Qatar and the UAE. Int. J. 2018, 73, 573–595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sim, L.-C. Re-branding Abu Dhabi: From oil giant to energy titan. Place Brand. Public Dipl. 2012, 8, 83–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ardemagni, E. Gulf Monarchies’ Militarized Nationalism; Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: Washington, DC, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Gause, F.G. Kings for All Seasons: How the Middle East’s Monarchies Survived the Arab Spring; Brookings: Doha, Qatar, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Sim, L.-C. Powering the Middle East and North Africa with Nuclear Energy: Stakeholders and Technopolitics. In Low Carbon Energy in the Middle East and North Africa; Mills, R., Sim, L.-C., Eds.; Palgrave: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Beblawi, H. The Rentier State in the Arab World. In The Rentier State; Beblawi, H., Luciani, G., Eds.; Croom Helm: London, UK, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Luciani, G. Allocation vs. Production States: A Theoretical Framework. In The Rentier State; Beblawi, H., Luciani, G., Eds.; Croom Helms: London, UK, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Tsai, I.-T.; Mezher, T. Rationalizing energy policy reforms in the gulf cooperation council: Implications from an institutional analysis. Energy Policy 2020, 142, 111545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krane, J. Political enablers of energy subsidy reform in Middle Eastern oil exporters. Nat. Energy 2018, 3, 547–552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hertog, S. Reforming Wealth Distribution in Kuwait: Estimating Costs and Impacts; London School of Economics and Political Science: London, UK, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Arezki, R.; Nabli, M.K. Natural Resources, Volatility, and Inclusive Growth: Perspectives from the Middle East and North Africa; International Monetary Fund: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Gray, M. A Theory of “Late Rentierism” in the Arab States of the Gulf; Center for International and Regional Studies, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Qatar: Doha, Qatar, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- AD. Global Medium Term Note Program: Supplement Dated 8 September 2021 to the Offering Circular Dated 28 May 2021; Abu Dhabi Department of Finance: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Freer, C. The Symbiosis of Sectarianism, Authoritarianism, and Rentierism in the Saudi State. Stud. Ethn. Natl. 2019, 19, 88–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lambert, L.A. Water, State Power, and Tribal Politics in the GCC: The Case of Kuwait and Abu Dhabi; Center for International and Regional Studies, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Qatar: Doha, Qatar, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Hertog, S. Defying the Resource Curse: Explaining Successful State-Owned Enterprises in Rentier States. World Politics 2010, 62, 261–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marcel, V. Oil Titans: National Oil Companies in the Middle East; Brookings Press/Chatham House: Washington, DC, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Crystal, J. Oil and Politics in the Gulf: Rulers and Merchants in Kuwait and Qatar; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Hanieh, A. Capitalism and Class in the Gulf Arab States; Palgrave Macmillan: London, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Elbadawi, I.; Selim, H. Understanding and Avoiding the Oil Curse in Resource-rich Arab Economies; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Feierstein, G.M. Persian Gulf nations modernizing under new generation of leaders. The Hill, 13 December 2016. Available online: https://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/international/310231-persian-gulf-nations-modernizing-under-new-generation-of/ (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Kinninmont, J. Future Trends in the Gulf; Chatham House: London, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Lawson, F.H.; Legrenzi, M. Repression and Monarchial Resilience in the Arab Gulf States. Int. Spect. 2017, 52, 76–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fatafta, M. Transnational Digital Repression in the MENA Region; George Washington University: Washington, DC, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- FH Saudi Arabia: Transnational Repression Case Study; Freedom House: Washington, DC, USA, 2021.
- Bischof, D.; Fink, S. Repression as a Double-Edged Sword: Resilient Monarchs, Repression and Revolution in the Arab World. Swiss Political Sci. Rev. 2015, 21, 377–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WB. World Government Indicators—Government Effectiveness; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Brown, C. International Politics and the Middle East: Old Rules, Dangerous Game; I B Tauris: London, UK, 1984. [Google Scholar]
- Yom, S.L. Collaboration and Community amongst the Arab Monarchies; POMEPS memo; POMEPS: Washington, DC, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Zumbrägel, T.; Demmelhuber, T. Temptations of Autocracy: How Saudi Arabia Influences and Attracts Its Neighbourhood. J. Arab. Stud. 2020, 10, 51–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schuetze, B. Promoting Democracy and Reinforcing Authoritarianism: US and European Policy in Jordan; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Brownlee, J. Democracy Prevention: The Politics of the U.S.-Egyptian Alliance; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- SIPRI. Trends in World Military Expenditure 2019; Stockholm International Peace Research Institute: Stockholm, Sweden, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Frost & Sullivan. Overview of Middle East Homeland Security Market. Frost Perspectives, 17 October 2017. Available online: https://www.frost.com/frost-perspectives/overview-of-middle-east-homeland-security-market/ (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Fulton, J.; Sim, L.-C. External Powers and the Gulf Monarchies; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- O’Rourke, R. Renewed Great Power Competition: Implications for Defense—Issues for Congress; Congressional Research Service: Washington, DC, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, J.; Calhoun, K. Op-ed: Clean Energy Tipping Points. Rocky Mountain Institute Blog, 27 May 2020. Available online: https://rmi.org/op-ed-clean-energy-tipping-points/ (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Fattouh, B.; Poudineh, R.; West, R. The rise of renewables and energy transition: What adaptation strategy exists for oil companies and oil-exporting countries? Energy Transit. 2019, 3, 45–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IRENA. Global Renewables Outlook: Energy Transformation 2050; International Renewable Energy Agency: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- IEA. Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector; International Energy Agency: Paris, France, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- BP. BP Statistical Review of World Energy; BP: London, UK, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Atalay, Y.; Biermann, F.; Kalfagiann, A. Adoption of renewable energy technologies in oil-rich countries: Explaining policy variation in the Gulf Cooperation Council states. Renew. Energy 2016, 85, 206–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El-Katiri, L. Regional Electricity Cooperation in the GCC; Anwar Gargash Diplomatic Academy: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Apostoleris, H.; Al Ghaferi, A.; Chiesa, M. What is going on with Middle Eastern solar prices, and what does it mean for the rest of us? Prog. Photovolt. 2021, 29, 638–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IRENA. Renewable Energy Market Analysis: GCC 2019; International Renewable Energy Agency: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Sovacool, B.K.; Griffiths, S. The cultural barriers to a low-carbon future: A review of six mobility and energy transitions across 28 countries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020, 119, 109569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Saidi, M. From Economic to Extrinsic Values of Sustainable Energy: Prestige, Neo-Rentierism, and Geopolitics of the Energy Transition in the Arabian Peninsula. Energies 2020, 13, 5545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alliance, M.H. The Potential for Green Hydrogen in the GCC; Dii desert energy and Roland Berger: Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 2021; Available online: https://www.menaenergymeet.com/wp-content/uploads/the-potential-for-green-hydrogen-in-the-gcc-region.pdf (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Griffiths, S. Bilateral Energy Diplomacy in a Time of Energy Transition; Emirates Diplomatic Academy: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Weatherby, C.; Eyler, B. UAE Energy Diplomacy: Exporting Renewable Energy to the South; Stimson Center: Washington, DC, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Bianco, C. Power Play: Europe’s Climate Diplomacy in the Gulf; European Council on Foreign Relations: Berlin, Germany, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Mahdavi, P.; Udin, N. Governance amidst the transition to renewable energy in the Middle East and North Africa. In Low Carbon Energy in the Middle East and North Africa; Mills, R., Sim, L.-C., Eds.; Palgrave: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Tsai, I.-T. Political economy of energy policy reforms in the Gulf Cooperation Council: Implications of paradigm change in the rentier social contract. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2018, 41, 89–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sim, L.-C. Low-carbon energy in the Gulf: Upending the rentier state? Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2020, 70, 101752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IRENA. Renewable Capacity Statistics 2022; International Renewable Energy Agency: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- ESMAP. Global Photovoltaic Power Potential by Country; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- IRENA. Energy Profile: United Arab Emirates; International Renewable Energy Agency: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Obeid, J. Energy Governance: Is the new meeting the old in Saudi Arabia’s energy industries? In Governance and Domestic Policy-Making in Saudi Arabia: Transforming Society, Economics, Politics and Culture; Thompson, M.C., Quilliam, N., Eds.; Bloomsbury: London, UK, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Shaila, S.Z.; Al-Ashmawy, R.; Obeid, J. Leveraging Energy Storage Systems in MENA; Arab Petroleum Investments Corporation Dammam: Dammam, Saudi Arabia, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- IEA-PVPS. Trends in Photovoltaic Applications; International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems Program: Paris, France, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Braunstein, J. Green Ambitions, Brown Realities: Making Sense of Renewable Investment Strategies in the Gulf; Harvard Kennedy School Belfer Center for International Affairs: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- WRI. Global Power Plant Database; Global Energy Observatory, Google, KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Enipedia; World Resources Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- DEWA. DEWA Smart Grid Report 2022; Government of Dubai: Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Mills, R. Under a Cloud: The Future of Middle East Gas Demand; Center on Global Energy Policy, Columbia University: New York, NY, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Krupa, J.; Poudineh, R.; Harvey, L.D.D. Renewable electricity finance in the resource-rich countries of the Middle East and North Africa: A case study on the Gulf Cooperation Council. Energy 2019, 166, 1047–1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lazard. Lazard’s Levelized Cost of Energy Analysis—Version 13.0; Lazard: Hamilton, Bermuda, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Apostoleris, H.; Sgouridis, S.; Stefancich, M.; Chiesa, M. Evaluating the factors that led to low-priced solar electricity projects in the Middle East. Nat. Energy 2018, 3, 1109–1114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akhonbay, H.M. The Economics of Renewable Energy in the Gulf; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- WB. Rural population (% of total population). World Bank Open Data; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Eurostat. Eurostat Regional Yearbook; Eurostat: Luxembourg, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Leiren, M.D.; Aakre, S.; Linnerud, K.; Julsrud, T.E.; Di Nuccia, M.-R.; Krug, M. Community Acceptance of Wind Energy Developments: Experience from Wind Energy Scarce Regions in Europe. Sustainability 2020, 12, 1754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gross, S. Renewables, Land Use, and Local Opposition in the United States; Brookings: Washington, DC, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Bremmer, I. The Return of State Capitalism. Survival 2008, 50, 55–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jones, T.C. The Dogma of Development: Technopolitics and power in Saudi Arabia. In Saudi Arabia in Transition: Insights on Social, Political, Economic, and Religious Change; Haykel, B., Hegghammer, T., Lacroix, S., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Scott, D. Author’s interview with Mr David Scott, Senior Director, Executive Affairs Authority Abu Dhabi. 21 November 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Al-Sulayman, F. The Obstacles Facing Renewables in the Gulf. Gulf Aff. 2016, 11, 9–11. [Google Scholar]
- GPP. Electricity prices. Available online: Globalpetrolprices.com (accessed on 17 November 2020).
- Schiffbauer, M.; Sy, A.; Hussain, S.; Sahnoun, H.; Keefer, P. Jobs or Privileges: Unleashing the Employment Potential of the Middle East and North Africa; The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- FS. Energy and Water: Industry in Duabi; Frost & Sullivan: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Utilities ME. Mai Dubai solar installations produce more than 30 million kWh of power in 2020. Utilities Middle East, 11 February 2021. Available online: https://www.utilities-me.com/news/16769-mai-dubai-solar-installations-produce-more-than-30-million-kwh-of-power-in-2020#:~:text=Mai%20Dubai%2C%20the%20bottled%20water,only%2026%20million%20kWh%2C%20according (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Woertz, E. The Energy Politics of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). In The Oxford Handbook of Energy Politics; Hancock, K.J., Allison, J.E., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Workman, D. Electricity Exports by Country. Available online: http://www.worldstopexports.com/electricity-exports-country/ (accessed on 23 March 2023).
- EY. How to Capture the Sun: The Economics of Solar; EY Americas: Boston, MA, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- PwC. Driving Value in Upstream Oil & Gas; PwC: London, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- WB. Electric Power Transmission and Distribution Losses (% of Output); World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Sgouridis, S.; Ali, M.; Sleptchenko, A.; Bouabid, A.; Ospina, G. Aluminum smelters in the energy transition: Optimal configuration and operation for renewable energy integration in high insolation regions. Renew. Energy 2021, 180, 937–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- GPCA. GCC Chemical Industry to Sustain Region’s Non-Oil Economic Growth; Gulf Petrochemicals and Chemicals Association: Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Woertz, E. Bahrain’s Economy: Oil Prices, Economic Diversification, Saudi Support, and Political Uncertainties; CIDOB Barcelona Center for International Affairs: Barcelona, Spain, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- OBG. Aluminium production expands and exports grow in Bahrain despite imposition of US trade tariffs. In The Report: Bahrain 2019; Oxford Business Group: London, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Osman, O.; Sgouridis, S.; Sleptchenko, A. Scaling the production of renewable ammonia: A techno-economic optimization applied in regions with high insolation. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 271, 121627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gandhi, K.; Apostoleris, H.; Sgouridis, S. Catching the hydrogen train: Economics-driven green hydrogen adoption potential in United Arab Emirates. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2022, 47, 22285–22301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eveloy, V.; Gebreegziabher, T. Excess electricity and power-to-gas storage potential in the future renewable-based power generation sector in United Arab Emirates. Energy 2019, 166, 426–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salmon, N.; Bañares-Alcántara, R. Green ammonia as a spatial energy vector: A review. Sustain. Energy Fuels 2021, 5, 2814–2839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qamar Hydrogen in the GCC; Netherlands Enterprise Agency: The Hague, The Netherlands, 2020.
- Wogan, D.; Pradhan, S.; Albardi, S. GCC Energy System Overview—2017; The King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- KT. Saudi plans renewables strategy with eye on oil export. Khaleej Times, 14 January 2020. Available online: https://www.khaleejtimes.com/energy/saudi-plans-renewables-strategy-with-eye-on-oil-export (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Ritchie, H.; Roser, M. CO2 and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. OurWorldInData.org. Available online: https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Griffin, P. The Carbon Majors Database; Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP): London, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Luomi, M. Climate change policy in the Arab region. In Low Carbon Energy in the Middle East and North Africa; Mills, R., Sim, L.-C., Eds.; Palgrave: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; pp. 299–332. [Google Scholar]
- Apostoleris, H.; Sgouridis, S.; Stefancich, M.; Chiesa, M. Utility solar prices will continue to drop all over the world even without subsidies. Nat. Energy 2019, 4, 833–834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zadek, S.; Flynn, C. South-Originating Green Finance: Exploring the Potential; Geneva International Finance Dialogues: Geneva, Switzerland, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Fardoust, S. Managing High Oil Prices and Recycling Petrodollars; Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Busch, J. Climate Change and Development in Three Charts. Center for Global Development Blog, 18 August 2015. [Google Scholar]
- IEA. Financing Clean Energy Transitions in Emerging and Developing Economies; Internaitonal Energy Agency: Paris, France, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Greenpeace. Saudi Arabian negotiators move to cripple COP26—Greenpeace Response; Greenpeace International Press: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Ottaway, D. Saudi Arabia’s Green Initiative Aims to Exonerate Fossil Fuel Advocacy. Viewpoints. 2021. Available online: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/saudi-arabias-green-initiative-aims-exonerate-fossil-fuel-advocacy (accessed on 1 March 2023).
- Elgendy, K. On the bandwagon to Glasgow: Climate action in the MENA region. Al Jazeera, 29 October 2021. [Google Scholar]
- WEC. World Energy Issues Monitor; World Energy Council: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- General Electric. Pathways to Faster Decarbonization in the GCC’s Power Sector; General Electric: Boston, MA, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Benali, L.R.; Al-Ashmawy, R.; Shatila, S.Z. MENA Energy Investment Outlook 2021–2025; Arab Petroleum Investments Corporation: Dammam, Saudi Arabia, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Bahgat, G. The Changing Saudi Energy Outlook: Strategic Implications. Middle East J. 2013, 67, 565–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- CEBC Energy Efficiency in MENA: Status and Outlook; Clean Energy Business Council: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2021.
- Young, K.E. Federal benefits: How federalism encourages economic diversification in United Arab Emirates. In Oil and the Political Economy in the Middle East: Post-2014 Adjustment Policies of the Arab Gulf and Beyond; Beck, M., Richter, T., Eds.; Manchester University Press: Manchester, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Al-Saidi, M.; Zaidan, E.; Hammad, S. Participation modes and diplomacy of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries towards the global sustainability agenda. Dev. Pract. 29 2019, 29, 545–558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soubrier, E. Evolving foreign and security policies: A comparative study of Qatar and United Arab Emirates. In The Small Gulf States: Foreign and Security policies before and after the Arab Spring; Almezaini, K., Rickli, J.-M., Eds.; Routledge: London, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Clausen, M.-L. Saudi Arabian military activism in Yemen: Interactions between the domestic and the systemic level. POMEPS 2019, 34, 76–80. [Google Scholar]
- Zumbrägel, T. Sustaining Power after Oil: Environmental Politics and Legitimacy in Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait; Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU): Erlangen, Germany, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Pinto, V.C. From “Follower” to “Role Model”: The Transformation to the UAE’s International Self-Image. J. Arab. Stud. 2014, 4, 231–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gygli, S.; Haelg, F.; Potrafke, N.; Sturm, J.-E. The KOF Globalisation Index—Revisited. Rev. Int. Organ. 2019, 14, 543–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WB. Trade as % of GDP; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Van de Graaf, T. Battling for a Shrinking Market: Oil producers, the renewables revolution, and the risk of stranded assets. In The Geopolitics of Renewables; Scholten, D., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Smith Stegen, K. Redrawing the Geopolitical Map: International Relations and Renewable Energies. In The Geopolitics of Renewables; Scholten, D., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Overland, I.; Bazilian, M.; Uulu, T.I.; Vakulchuk, R.; Westphal, K. The GeGaLo index: Geopolitical gains and losses after energy transition. Energy Strategy Rev. 2019, 26, 100406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manley, D.; Heller, P. Risky Bet: National Oil Companies in the Energy Transition; National Resource Governance Institute: New York, NY, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
Country | Overall Target |
---|---|
Bahrain a | 5% by 2025 10% by 2035 |
Kuwait | 15% by 2030 |
Oman | 10% by 2025 |
Qatar | 20% by 2030 |
Saudi Arabia a | 10% by 2025 50% by 2030 |
UAE a Abu Dhabi Dubai | 44% by 2050 b 55% by 2025 b 75% by 2050 c |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sim, L.-C. Renewable Energy and Governance Resilience in the Gulf. Energies 2023, 16, 3225. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073225
Sim L-C. Renewable Energy and Governance Resilience in the Gulf. Energies. 2023; 16(7):3225. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073225
Chicago/Turabian StyleSim, Li-Chen. 2023. "Renewable Energy and Governance Resilience in the Gulf" Energies 16, no. 7: 3225. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073225
APA StyleSim, L.-C. (2023). Renewable Energy and Governance Resilience in the Gulf. Energies, 16(7), 3225. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073225