Long COVID and Unemployment in Hawaii
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Survey Collection
2.2. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Summary Statistics
3.2. Unemployment Results
3.3. New Job Loss, Furloughed, or Hours Reduced Results
3.4. Impacts of Length and Severity of Symptoms
3.5. Correlations between Comorbidities and Long COVID Symptoms
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- State of Hawaii, Department of Health. State of Hawaii COVID-19 Data Dashboards. 2023. Available online: https://health.hawaii.gov/coronavirusdisease2019 (accessed on 24 June 2023).
- Center for Disease Control and Protection. Nearly One in Five American Adults Who Have Had COVID-19 Still Have “Long COVID”. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/nchs_press_releases/2022/20220622.htm (accessed on 24 June 2023).
- Juarez, R.; Halliday, T.; Bonham, C.; Bond-Smith, D.; Moore, C.; Wada, C.; Le, B.; Siegal, N.; Kang, Z.; Rhinebolt, V. Vaccination Booster Uptake Lags as COVID Impact Reach Widens; University of Hawaii Economic Research Organization: Honolulu, HI, USA, 2023; Available online: https://uhero.hawaii.edu/public-health-report-vaccination-booster-uptake-lags-as-covid-impact-reach-widens/ (accessed on 24 June 2023).
- Aiyegbusi, O.L.; Hughes, S.E.; Turner, G.; Rivera, S.C.; McMullan, C.; Chandan, J.S.; Haroon, S.; Price, G.; Davies, E.H.; Nirantharakumar, K.; et al. Symptoms, complications and management of long COVID: A review. J. R. Soc. Med. 2021, 114, 428–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alfani, G.; Percoco, M. Plague and long-term development: The lasting effects of the 1629–1630 epidemic on the Italian cities. Econ. Hist. Rev. 2019, 72, 1175–1201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jordà, Ò.; Singh, S.; Taylor, A. Longer-Run Economic Consequences of Pandemics; Technical Report; Working Paper 2020-09; Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodríguez-Caballero, C.V.; Vera-Valdés, J.E. Long-Lasting Economic Effects of Pandemics: Evidence on Growth and Unemployment. Econometrics 2020, 8, 37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brainerd, E.; Siegler, M.V. The Economic Effects of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic. CEPR Press Discussion Paper No. 3791. 2003. Available online: https://cepr.org/publications/dp3791 (accessed on 24 June 2023).
- de la Escosura, L.P.; Rodríguez-Caballero, C.V. War, pandemics, and modern economic growth in Europe. Explor. Econ. Hist. 2022, 86, 101467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alfani, G. Epidemics, Inequality and Poverty in Preindustrial and Early Industrial Times. J. Econ. Lit. 2020, 60, 3–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richards, F.; Kodjamanova, P.; Chen, X.; Li, N.; Atanasov, P.; Bennetts, L.; Patterson, B.J.; Yektashenas, B.; Mesa-Frias, M.; Tronczynski, K.; et al. Economic Burden of COVID-19: A Systematic Review. ClinicoEcon. Outcomes Res. 2022, 14, 293–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goda, G.S.; Soltas, E. The Impacts of COVID-19 Illnesses on Workers; Technical Report; National Bureau of Economic Research: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Füleky, P.; Szapudi, I. Bird’s Eye View of COVID-19, Mobility, and Labor Market Outcomes Across the US. Econ. Disasters Clim. Chang. 2022, 6, 339–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Guerrieri, V.; Lorenzoni, G.; Straub, L.; Werning, I. Macroeconomic Implications of COVID-19: Can Negative Supply Shocks Cause Demand Shortages? Technical Report; National Bureau of Economic Research: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bond-Smith, S.; Fuleky, P. The effects of the pandemic on the economy of Hawaii. Curr. Issues Tour. 2022, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mirin, A.A. A preliminary estimate of the economic impact of long COVID in the United States. Fatigue Biomed. Health Behav. 2022, 10, 190–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perlis, R.H.; Trujillo, K.L.; Safarpour, A.; Santillana, M.; Ognyanova, K.; Druckman, J.; Lazer, D. Research Letter: Association between long COVID symptoms and employment status. medRxiv 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bach, K. Is ‘Long COVID’ Worsening the Labor Shortage? Techreport; Brookings: Washington, DC, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- New York State Insurance Fund. Shining a Light on Long COVID: An Analysis of Workers’ Compensation Data; Technical Report; The New York State Insurance Fund: New York, NY, USA, 2023. [Google Scholar]
- Westerlind, E.; Palstam, A.; Sunnerhagen, K.S.; Persson, H.C. Patterns and predictors of sick leave after COVID-19 and long COVID in a national Swedish cohort. BMC Public Health 2021, 21, 1023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davidson, R. Econometric Theory and Methods: International Edition; OUP Oxford: New York, NY, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Office of the Governor of Hawai‘i. Press Releases. 2021. Available online: https://governor.hawaii.gov/category/newsroom/governors-office-press-releases/ (accessed on 24 June 2023).
- Juarez, R.; Siegal, N.; Maunakea, A.K. The Effects of COVID-19 Vaccine Mandates in Hawaii. Vaccines 2022, 10, 773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Limbu, Y.B.; Gautam, R.K.; Pham, L. The Health Belief Model Applied to COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy: A Systematic Review. Vaccines 2022, 10, 973. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Juarez, R.; Phankitnirundorn, K.; Ramirez, A.; Peres, R.; Maunakea, A.K.; Okihiro, M. Vaccine-Associated Shifts in SARS-CoV-2 Infectivity Among the Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population in Hawaii. Am. J. Public Health 2022, 112, S896–S899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Juarez, R.; Phankitnirundorn, K.; Okihiro, M.; Maunakea, A.K. Opposing Role of Trust as a Modifier of COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake in an Indigenous Population. Vaccines 2022, 10, 968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Juarez, R.; Kang, Z.; Okihiro, M.; Garcia, B.K.; Phankitnirundorn, K.; Maunakea, A.K. Dynamics of Trust and Consumption of COVID-19 Information Implicate a Mechanism for COVID-19 Vaccine and Booster Uptake. Vaccines 2022, 10, 1435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Deng, X.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, S.; He, H.; Chen, Z.; Zhou, Y.; Yan, R.; Tang, X.; Zhu, Y.; Xu, X. Assessing COVID-19 Vaccine Booster Hesitancy Using the Modified 5C Scale in Zhejiang Province, China: A Cross-Sectional Study. Vaccines 2023, 11, 706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Observation | Mean | St. Dev. | |
---|---|---|---|
Variables | (1) | (2) | (3) |
Dummy Variables | |||
Unemployed in May | 749 | 0.0908 | 0.287 |
Unemployed in November | 745 | 0.101 | 0.301 |
Lost job since May | 767 | 0.0535 | 0.225 |
Furloughed or reduced hours since May | 767 | 0.0939 | 0.292 |
Reported long COVID in May | 391 | 0.292 | 0.455 |
Reported long COVID in November | 739 | 0.288 | 0.453 |
Highest education—Less than High School | 765 | 0.379 | 0.485 |
Highest education—High School | 765 | 0.0183 | 0.134 |
Highest education—College | 765 | 0.6 | 0.49 |
Female | 767 | 0.66 | 0.474 |
African American | 767 | 0.00652 | 0.0805 |
Caucasian | 767 | 0.278 | 0.448 |
Chinese | 767 | 0.0704 | 0.256 |
Filipino | 767 | 0.11 | 0.312 |
Hawaiian | 767 | 0.181 | 0.385 |
Japanese | 767 | 0.203 | 0.403 |
Korean | 767 | 0.0169 | 0.129 |
Latino | 767 | 0.0248 | 0.156 |
Samoan | 767 | 0.00913 | 0.0952 |
Portuguese | 767 | 0.0156 | 0.124 |
Other | 767 | 0.0261 | 0.159 |
Discrete Variables | |||
Length of lingering symptoms in May (months) | 114 | 3.57 | 2.238 |
Severity of lingering symptoms in May (1–5) | 114 | 2.377 | 0.944 |
Length of lingering symptoms in November (months) | 213 | 4.432 | 2.183 |
Severity of lingering symptoms in November (1–5) | 213 | 2.469 | 0.944 |
Number COVID shots—May | 758 | 1.951 | 0.799 |
Number COVID shots—November | 758 | 2.509 | 1.097 |
Age (years) | 766 | 48.92 | 15.4 |
Unemployed in May | Unemployed in November | ||
---|---|---|---|
Variables | (1) | (2) | (3) |
May—long COVID | 0.0643 ** | 0.0707 ** | |
(0.0299) | (0.0310) | ||
November—long COVID | 0.0340 | ||
(0.0232) | |||
Number COVID shots—May | −0.0694 *** | −0.0395 ** | |
(0.0161) | (0.0181) | ||
Number COVID shots—November | −0.00234 | ||
(0.0108) | |||
Age (years) | −0.00177 * | −0.00295 ** | −0.00327 *** |
(0.00107) | (0.00115) | (0.000766) | |
Female | −0.0210 | −0.0215 | −0.00297 |
(0.0328) | (0.0350) | (0.0232) | |
Highest education—high school | −0.0278 | −0.118 | 0.0306 |
(0.0690) | (0.0730) | (0.0864) | |
Highest education—college | −0.0808 | −0.170 ** | −0.00540 |
(0.0692) | (0.0720) | (0.0855) | |
African American | 0.0373 | 0.0259 | 0.0394 |
(0.0982) | (0.106) | (0.103) | |
Chinese | −0.0521 | ||
(0.0562) | |||
Filipino | −0.0510 | −0.0462 | −0.0134 |
(0.0521) | (0.0507) | (0.0385) | |
Hawaiian | 0.0451 | −0.0114 | 0.0327 |
(0.0376) | (0.0417) | (0.0284) | |
Japanese | −0.00134 | −0.0143 | −0.0128 |
(0.0437) | (0.0471) | (0.0320) | |
Latino | 0.0811 | 0.0520 | 0.0163 |
(0.0699) | (0.0739) | (0.0637) | |
Portuguese | 0.0650 | −0.0247 | |
(0.112) | (0.0870) | ||
Other | 0.0195 | 0.0605 | |
(0.0982) | (0.0600) | ||
Observations | 335 | 349 | 697 |
Pseudo R2 | 0.199 | 0.145 | 0.145 |
Lost Job between May and November | Furloughed or Hours Cut bw May and November | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) |
May—long COVID | 0.0373 | 0.0164 | ||
(0.0241) | (0.0333) | |||
November—long COVID | 0.0267 | 0.0358 | ||
(0.0180) | (0.0247) | |||
Number COVID shots—May | −0.0237 * | 0.0291 | ||
(0.0141) | (0.0187) | |||
Number COVID shots—November | −0.00733 | 0.0164 | ||
(0.00873) | (0.0118) | |||
Age | −0.00163 ** | −0.00191 *** | −0.00330 *** | −0.00255 *** |
(0.000816) | (0.000615) | (0.00105) | (0.000826) | |
Female | −0.0281 | −0.0157 | 0.0114 | 0.0110 |
(0.0239) | (0.0172) | (0.0322) | (0.0243) | |
Highest education—High School | 0.456 *** | 0.419 *** | −0.00602 | −0.130 * |
(0.0916) | (0.0593) | (0.0798) | (0.0790) | |
Highest education—college | 0.401 *** | 0.383 *** | −0.0964 | −0.185 ** |
(0.0868) | (0.0564) | (0.0810) | (0.0783) | |
Chinese | 0.0213 | 0.0282 | −0.0522 | −0.0167 |
(0.0470) | (0.0347) | (0.0774) | (0.0484) | |
Filipino | −0.00432 | 0.00598 | −0.148 ** | −0.121 ** |
(0.0332) | (0.0279) | (0.0599) | (0.0514) | |
Hawaiian | −0.0287 | 0.0141 | −0.0499 | 0.00671 |
(0.0312) | (0.0239) | (0.0408) | (0.0320) | |
Japanese | −0.0726 * | −0.0301 | −0.0405 | −0.0143 |
(0.0415) | (0.0273) | (0.0423) | (0.0308) | |
Samoan | 0.0593 | 0.0491 | ||
(0.0715) | (0.112) | |||
Portuguese | 0.0728 | 0.0175 | ||
(0.0660) | (0.0584) | |||
Other | 0.0832 | 0.0505 | 0.142 * | 0.0777 |
(0.0515) | (0.0445) | (0.0788) | (0.0602) | |
Observations | 361 | 696 | 356 | 684 |
Pseudo R2 | 0.174 | 0.0929 | 0.124 | 0.0694 |
Variables | Unemployed in May | Unemployed in November | |
---|---|---|---|
Length of symptoms May (months) | −0.0364 ** | −0.0164 | |
(0.0180) | (0.0188) | ||
Severity of symptoms May (1–5) | 0.0636 ** | 0.0575 * | |
(0.0314) | (0.0320) | ||
Length of symptoms Nov. (months) | −0.0129 | ||
(0.00972) | |||
Severity of symptoms Nov. (1–5) | 0.0299 | ||
(0.0256) | |||
Number COVID shots—May | −0.138 *** | −0.0734 * | |
(0.0330) | (0.0395) | ||
Number COVID shots—November | 0.00128 | ||
(0.0218) | |||
Age | −0.00410 ** | −0.00450 ** | −0.00303 ** |
(0.00184) | (0.00213) | (0.00145) | |
Female | −0.117 ** | −0.149 ** | 0.0220 |
(0.0568) | (0.0672) | (0.0523) | |
Highest education—High School | −0.00215 | −0.00559 | 0.747 *** |
(0.124) | (0.143) | (0.133) | |
Highest education—College | 0.00837 | −0.0719 | 0.712 *** |
(0.127) | (0.150) | (0.135) | |
Chinese | −0.0332 | ||
(0.104) | |||
Filipino | 0.0299 | −0.0341 | 0.00761 |
(0.0850) | (0.0943) | (0.0742) | |
Hawaiian | −0.104 | −0.211 ** | −0.0186 |
(0.0791) | (0.103) | (0.0632) | |
Japanese | 0.00116 | −0.109 | −0.0178 |
(0.0799) | (0.0918) | (0.0640) | |
Latino | 0.203 ** | 0.152 | 0.0977 |
(0.0883) | (0.0980) | (0.0914) | |
Portuguese | 0.0918 | 0.0408 | |
(0.144) | (0.140) | ||
Other | 0.149 | ||
(0.160) | |||
Observations | 99 | 104 | 200 |
Pseudo R2 | 0.377 | 0.284 | 0.0653 |
Comorbidities | May Unemployment | November Unemployment |
---|---|---|
Alcohol or substance use disorder | 0.044 * | −0.002 |
(0.081) | (0.927) | |
Asthma | 0.007 | −0.002 |
(0.779) | (0.943) | |
Autoimmune disease | 0.019 | 0.032 |
(0.45) | (0.205) | |
Cancer diagnosis and/or treatment | 0.003 | −0.013 |
(0.903) | (0.611) | |
Cardiovascular disease | −0.017 | −0.035 |
(0.509) | (0.16) | |
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | −0.04 | −0.022 |
(0.11) | (0.385) | |
Depression | 0.130 *** | 0.089 *** |
(0) | (0) | |
Diabetes | 0.001 | −0.014 |
(0.977) | (0.57) | |
Hypertension | −0.099 *** | −0.096 *** |
(0) | (0) | |
Immunocompromised condition | 0.036 | 0.026 |
(0.153) | (0.292) | |
Intravenous drug use | 0.039 | 0.048 * |
(0.123) | (0.053) | |
Other chronic lung condition | −0.033 | 0.049 ** |
(0.194) | (0.048) | |
Prediabetes | −0.026 | −0.031 |
(0.306) | (0.219) | |
Other chronic conditions | 0.061 ** | 0.018 |
(0.015) | (0.462) | |
Other mental health conditions | 0.046 * | 0.093 *** |
(0.066) | (0) | |
Sickle cell anemia | −0.015 | −0.014 |
(0.542) | (0.571) | |
Observations | 1599 | 1593 |
Long COVID Symptoms | May Unemployment | November Unemployment |
---|---|---|
Length of lingering symptoms (months) | −0.05 | −0.039 |
(0.597) | (0.578) | |
Severity (1—very mild to 5—very severe) | 0.194 ** | 0.094 |
(0.04) | (0.175) | |
Cough | 0.058 | −0.113 * |
(0.541) | (0.104) | |
Fatigue | −0.125 | 0.056 |
(0.187) | (0.421) | |
Joint pain | 0.019 | 0.04 |
(0.845) | (0.566) | |
Loss of taste or smell | 0.027 | 0.201 *** |
(0.772) | (0.003) | |
Mental Fog | 0.117 | 0.034 |
(0.215) | (0.629) | |
Other symptoms | −0.006 | −0.161 ** |
(0.947) | (0.02) | |
Observations | 209 | 113 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Bonham, C.; Juarez, R.; Siegal, N. Long COVID and Unemployment in Hawaii. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 6231. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136231
Bonham C, Juarez R, Siegal N. Long COVID and Unemployment in Hawaii. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(13):6231. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136231
Chicago/Turabian StyleBonham, Carl, Ruben Juarez, and Nicole Siegal. 2023. "Long COVID and Unemployment in Hawaii" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 13: 6231. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136231