Safe-and-Sustainable-by-Design Framework Based on a Prospective Life Cycle Assessment: Lessons Learned from a Nano-Titanium Dioxide Case Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Life Cycle Assessment
3.2. Towards an LCA/SSbD Approach
3.2.1. Possible SSbD Actions
3.2.2. Data Uncertainty
3.3. Lessons Learned
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | Type of Framework | Characteristics | LCA Consideration |
---|---|---|---|
[32] | LCA | A stepwise method to integrate LCA in each product development stage. This way, the output based on LCA for one stage of product development was input for the next stage of product development. | Yes |
[20] | Sustainability assessment | A framework of 68 criteria for the sustainability assessment of nano-based products. | No |
[33] | Toolkit to combine LCA with ternary diagrams | Safety is not considered except for LCA impact indicators, such as ecotoxicity and human toxicity. Toolkit development focused on applications on novel processes. | Yes |
[34] | Early-stage life cycle screening of emerging technologies | Screening-to-LCA or a full LCA depending on data availability. The screening-to-LCA approach uses available data to evaluate the environmental performance of technologies at low TRLs. | Yes |
[8] | Stepwise framework to improve sustainability and safety performance | The framework aims to guide the development of safer nano-based products at a laboratory-scale level and, when more information is available, more sustainable nano-based products at an industrial-scale level. Safety assessment precedes the sustainability assessment. | No |
Indicator | Measure |
---|---|
Solvent consumption | Volume of solvent per nanomaterial mass (mL/g) |
Electricity consumption | Amount per nanomaterial mass (kWh/g) |
Heat consumption | Amount per nanomaterial mass (kJ/g) |
Pollutant emissions | Mass of pollutants emitted per nanomaterial mass (g/g) |
Waste production | Mass of waste produced per nanomaterial mass (g/g) |
Description | Data Needed | Alternative if Step CANNOT Be Performed |
---|---|---|
Step 6: Are the original system boundaries known? | Yes. Identification of LC stages | Estimation of KPIs |
Step 7: What is the expected release rate of NM? | No. Research has to be identified for the NM under study | Build an LCI based on bulk material flows |
Step 8: Do nano-toxicological data exist? | Yes, collection of effect factor (EF), human effect factor (HEF) and exposure factor (XF) for the NM under study | Use of nano-databases |
Step 9: Data collection from sources such as the European Union Observatory for Nanomaterials (https://euon.echa.europa.eu/ (accessed on 10 September 2021)) | Collection of effect factor (EF) and exposure factor (XF) for the NM under study | Use read-across method |
Step 10a: Do fate data exist for the NM under study? | Yes. Fate factor (FF) data | Use read-across method |
Step 10b: Is it possible to read across? | Yes. Psychochemical characteristics of NM | Build an LCI based on bulk material flows |
Step 11: Data collection for LCI build-up | Material flows, nano-material flows and energy flows | Data for safety assessment or estimation of KPIs |
Step 16: Scaling up | Good knowledge of thermodynamics and efficiencies for larger-scale equipment | None |
Nanomaterial | Particle Size (nm) | Surface Area (m2/g) | Characterization Factor FEP (PAF.d.m3/kgemitted) | Characterization Factor HTP (Cases.d/kgemitted) |
---|---|---|---|---|
P25-TiO2 | 20 | 50 | 3443 a | 222 b |
Cu2O/P25-TiO2 | 20 c | 50 d | 17,700 e | 0.99 b |
Reference System (TiO2, Bulk-Based) | Reference System (P25-TiO2, Nano-Based) | Original System (Cu2O/TiO2, Bulk-Based) | Original System (Cu2O/P25-TiO2, Nano-Based) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
GWP (kg CO2 eq.) | 18.17 | 0 | 9.28 | 0 |
CED (MJ) | 736.4 | 0 | 215.9 | 0 |
HTPnon-cancer (cases) | 1.04 × 10−6 | 1.28 × 10−2 | 5.34 × 10−6 | 2.29 × 10−5 |
FEP (PAF.m3.d) | 2632.3 | 15.08 | 9992.9 | 16.26 |
Parameter | Hotspots | Possible SbD Action to Relieve Hotspot |
---|---|---|
Size | Small NMs (<50 nm)) | Alter design to avoid NMs below this threshold |
Shape | High aspect ratio NMs (HARN, >1:5) | Alter design to avoid NMs with HARN |
Solubility | Fibrous, non-soluble materials | Alter design to avoid fibrous, non-soluble materials |
Stability of coating | Unstable coatings which allow for NM release | Alter design with stable coating |
Persistence | Environmentally persistent | Alter design to avoid environmentally persistent NMs |
Reactivity | Highly reactive NMs | Alter design to avoid reactive NMs |
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) | Production of ROS and indirect genotoxicity | Alter design to reduce/avoid ROS production |
Agglomeration | Agglomeration could be a potent inducer of inflammatory lung injury in humans | Alter design to NMs that do not agglomerate if lung exposure is expected |
Exposure | Inhalation exposure (powders) | Avoid inhalation exposure |
Environmental release rate | High NM release rate | Alter matrix design to avoid NM environmental release |
Human toxicity indicator | High human toxicity from single process | Alter process to reduce human toxicity |
Ecotoxicity indicator | High ecotoxicity from single process | Alter process to reduce ecotoxicity |
Cumulative energy demand indicator | High energy consumption from single process | Alter process to reduce energy consumption |
Any other environmental impact indicator | High contribution to indicator’s score by a single process | Alter process to reduce contribution to indicator |
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Tsalidis, G.A.; Soeteman-Hernández, L.G.; Noorlander, C.W.; Saedy, S.; van Ommen, J.R.; Vijver, M.G.; Korevaar, G. Safe-and-Sustainable-by-Design Framework Based on a Prospective Life Cycle Assessment: Lessons Learned from a Nano-Titanium Dioxide Case Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4241. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074241
Tsalidis GA, Soeteman-Hernández LG, Noorlander CW, Saedy S, van Ommen JR, Vijver MG, Korevaar G. Safe-and-Sustainable-by-Design Framework Based on a Prospective Life Cycle Assessment: Lessons Learned from a Nano-Titanium Dioxide Case Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(7):4241. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074241
Chicago/Turabian StyleTsalidis, Georgios Archimidis, Lya G. Soeteman-Hernández, Cornelle W. Noorlander, Saeed Saedy, J. Ruud van Ommen, Martina G. Vijver, and Gijsbert Korevaar. 2022. "Safe-and-Sustainable-by-Design Framework Based on a Prospective Life Cycle Assessment: Lessons Learned from a Nano-Titanium Dioxide Case Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 7: 4241. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074241