Economic Policy Uncertainty, Social Development, Political Regimes and Environmental Quality
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Variables, Data and Methodology
3.1. Variables
3.2. Data
3.3. Estimating Methods
4. Estimating Results
4.1. Baseline Results
4.2. Increasing EPU
4.3. The Role of Social Development in EPU’s Impact on Environmental Performance
4.4. The Role of Political Regimes in EPU’s Impact on Environmental Performance
5. Conclusions and Policy Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Kompas, T.; Pham, V.H.; Che, T.N. The effects of climate change on GDP by country and the global economic gains from complying with the Paris climate accord. Earth’s Future 2018, 6, 1153–1173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shahbaz, M.; Mahalik, M.K.; Shahzad, S.J.H.; Hammoudeh, S. Does the environmental K uznets curve exist between globalization and energy consumption? Global evidence from the cross-correlation method. Int. J. Financ. Econ. 2019, 24, 540–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Coskuner, C.; Paskeh, M.K.; Olasehinde-Williams, G.; Akadiri, S.S. Economic and social determinants of carbon emissions: Evidence from organization of petroleum exporting countries. J. Public Aff. 2020, 20, e2092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hambira, W.L.; Saarinen, J.; Moses, O. Climate change policy in a world of uncertainty: Changing environment, knowledge, and tourism in Botswana. Afr. Geogr. Rev. 2020, 39, 252–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huo, T.; Li, X.; Cai, W.; Zuo, J.; Jia, F.; Wei, H. Exploring the impact of urbanization on urban building carbon emissions in China: Evidence from a provincial panel data model. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2020, 56, 102068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, D.; Ullah, A. Testing the relationship between globalization and carbon dioxide emissions in Pakistan: Does environmental Kuznets curve exist? Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 15194–15208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahadevan, R.; Sun, Y. Effects of foreign direct investment on carbon emissions: Evidence from China and its Belt and Road countries. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 276, 111321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, Q.-J.; Geng, Y.; Xia, X.-Q. Revisited Globalization’s Impact on Total Environment: Evidence Based on Overall Environmental Performance Index. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, S.R.; Farrokhnia, R.A.; Meyer, S.; Pagel, M.; Yannelis, C. How does household spending respond to an epidemic? Consumption during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. Rev. Asset Pricing Stud. 2020, 10, 834–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jordà, Ò.; Singh, S.R.; Taylor, A.M. Longer-run economic consequences of pandemics? Rev. Econ. Stat. 2022, 104, 166–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bakas, D.; Triantafyllou, A. Commodity price volatility and the economic uncertainty of pandemics. Econ. Lett. 2020, 193, 109283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balcilar, M.; Gupta, R.; Segnon, M. The role of economic policy uncertainty in predicting US recessions: A mixed-frequency Markov-switching vector autoregressive approach. Economics 2016, 10, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Degiannakis, S.; Filis, G.; Panagiotakopoulou, S. Oil price shocks and uncertainty: How stable is their relationship over time? Econ. Modell. 2018, 72, 42–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hailemariam, A.; Smyth, R.; Zhang, X. Oil prices and economic policy uncertainty: Evidence from a nonparametric panel data model. Energy Econ. 2019, 83, 40–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phan, D.H.B.; Iyke, B.N.; Sharma, S.S.; Affandi, Y. Economic policy uncertainty and financial stability–Is there a relation? Econ. Modell. 2021, 94, 1018–1029. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guidolin, M.; La Ferrara, E. The economic effects of violent conflict: Evidence from asset market reactions. J. Peace Res. 2010, 47, 671–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kang, W.; Ratti, R.A.; Vespignani, J.L. Oil price shocks and policy uncertainty: New evidence on the effects of US and non-US oil production. Energy Econ. 2017, 66, 536–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Olanipekun, I.; Olasehinde-Williams, G.; Saint Akadiri, S. Gasoline prices and economic policy uncertainty: What causes what, and why does it matter? Evidence from 18 selected countries. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 15187–15193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Akron, S.; Demir, E.; Díez-Esteban, J.M.; García-Gómez, C.D. Economic policy uncertainty and corporate investment: Evidence from the US hospitality industry. Tour. Manag. 2020, 77, 104019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salahuddin, M.; Alam, K.; Ozturk, I.; Sohag, K. The effects of electricity consumption, economic growth, financial development and foreign direct investment on CO2 emissions in Kuwait. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 81, 2002–2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jiang, Y.; Zhou, Z.; Liu, C. Does economic policy uncertainty matter for carbon emission? Evidence from US sector level data. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 24380–24394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yu, J.; Shi, X.; Guo, D.; Yang, L. Economic policy uncertainty (EPU) and firm carbon emissions: Evidence using a China provincial EPU index. Energy Econ. 2021, 94, 105071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adams, S.; Adedoyin, F.; Olaniran, E.; Bekun, F.V. Energy consumption, economic policy uncertainty and carbon emissions; causality evidence from resource rich economies. Econ. Anal. Policy 2020, 68, 179–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amin, A.; Dogan, E. The role of economic policy uncertainty in the energy-environment nexus for China: Evidence from the novel dynamic simulations method. J. Environ. Manag. 2021, 292, 112865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, L.; Vo, X.V.; Shahbaz, M.; Ak, A. Globalization and carbon emissions: Is there any role of agriculture value-added, financial development, and natural resource rent in the aftermath of COP21? J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 268, 110712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pirgaip, B.; Dinçergök, B. Economic policy uncertainty, energy consumption and carbon emissions in G7 countries: Evidence from a panel Granger causality analysis. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 30050–30066. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Thaqeb, S.A.; Algharabali, B.G. Economic policy uncertainty: A literature review. J. Econ. Asymmetries. 2019, 20, e00133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bloom, N. Fluctuations in uncertainty. J. Econ. Persprct. 2014, 28, 153–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Atsu, F.; Adams, S. Energy consumption, finance, and climate change: Does policy uncertainty matter? Econ. Anal. Policy 2021, 70, 490–501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ulucak, R.; Khan, S.U.D. Relationship between energy intensity and CO2 emissions: Does economic policy matter? Sustain. Develop. 2020, 28, 1457–1464. [Google Scholar]
- Chu, L.K.; Le, N.T.M. Environmental quality and the role of economic policy uncertainty, economic complexity, renewable energy, and energy intensity: The case of G7 countries. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 29, 2866–2882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ahir, H.; Bloom, N.; Furceri, D. The World Uncertainty Index. SSRN 3275033. 2018. Available online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3275033 (accessed on 7 June 2021).
- Chen, X.; Zhang, S.; Ruan, S. Polycentric structure and carbon dioxide emissions: Empirical analysis from provincial data in China. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 278, 123411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shabir, M.; Ali, M.; Hashmi, S.H.; Bakhsh, S. Heterogeneous effects of economic policy uncertainty and foreign direct investment on environmental quality: Cross-country evidence. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 29, 2737–2752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sohail, M.T.; Xiuyuan, Y.; Usman, A.; Majeed, M.T.; Ullah, S. Renewable energy and non-renewable energy consumption: Assessing the asymmetric role of monetary policy uncertainty in energy consumption. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 31575–31584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adedoyin, F.F.; Zakari, A. Energy consumption, economic expansion, and CO2 emission in the UK: The role of economic policy uncertainty. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 738, 140014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baker, S.R.; Bloom, N.; Davis, S.J. Measuring economic policy uncertainty. Q. J. Econ. 2016, 131, 1593–1636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doğan, E.; Güler, C. How Economic Policy Uncertainty Affect Carbon Emissions: A Case of G-7 Countries. J. Econ. Bus. Issues 2021, 1, 33–38. [Google Scholar]
- Liu, Y.; Zhang, Z. How does economic policy uncertainty affect CO2 emissions? A regional analysis in China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 29, 4276–4290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anser, M.K.; Apergis, N.; Syed, Q.R. Impact of economic policy uncertainty on CO2 emissions: Evidence from top ten carbon emitter countries. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 29369–29378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wen, J.; Hao, Y.; Feng, G.-F.; Chang, C.-P. Does government ideology influence environmental performance? Evidence based on a new dataset. Econ. Syst. 2016, 40, 232–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Q.-J.; Feng, G.-F.; Chen, Y.E.; Wen, J.; Chang, C.-P. The impacts of government ideology on innovation: What are the main implications? Res. Policy 2019, 48, 1232–1247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Winslow, M. Is democracy good for the environment? J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2005, 48, 771–783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, C.-P.; Lee, C.-C.; Berdiev, A.N. The impact of government ideology on energy efficiency: Evidence from panel data. Energy Effic. 2015, 8, 1181–1199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheibub, J.A.; Gandhi, J.; Vreeland, J.R. Democracy and dictatorship revisited. Public Choice 2010, 143, 67–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bjørnskov, C.; Rode, M. Regime types and regime change: A new dataset on democracy, coups, and political institutions. Rev. Int. Organ. 2020, 15, 531–551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variable | Definition | Source |
---|---|---|
Dependent variables | ||
EPI | The score of environmental performance | YCELP, CIESIN |
Independent Variables | ||
Uncertainty | The score of economic policy uncertainty | Ahir et al. (2018) [32] |
Control variables | ||
GDP | real GDP per capita which is constant in 2011 US dollars | WDI (2020) |
IND | The proportion of industrial value added to GDP. | WDI (2020) |
POP | The number of the total population | WDI (2020) |
Density | The number of people per square km | WDI (2020) |
Aging | Proportion of people aged 65 or above in total population | WDI (2020) |
Urban | The share of urban residentials in total population | WDI (2020) |
Trade | Share of exports and imports to GDP | WDI (2020) |
IFDI | Ratio of IFDI to GDP | WDI (2020) |
GI | The number of patent applications about environmental management | OECD (2020) |
Variable | N | Mean | Min | Median | Max | S.D | Skewness | Kurtosis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EPI | 2325 | 4.074 | 2.843 | 4.148 | 4.522 | 0.315 | −0.858 | 3.461 |
Uncertainty | 2325 | 0.159 | 0.000 | 0.133 | 0.851 | 0.119 | 1.192 | 5.017 |
GDP | 2325 | 8.467 | 5.356 | 8.433 | 11.431 | 1.498 | 0.107 | 1.974 |
IND | 2325 | 3.304 | 0.835 | 3.289 | 4.486 | 0.380 | −0.532 | 6.932 |
POP | 2325 | 16.525 | 14.045 | 16.248 | 21.055 | 1.342 | 0.731 | 3.487 |
Density | 2325 | 4.167 | 0.939 | 4.310 | 8.981 | 1.278 | −0.023 | 3.726 |
Aging | 2325 | 2.021 | 0.522 | 1.909 | 3.353 | 0.621 | 0.200 | 1.829 |
Urban | 2325 | 3.984 | 2.247 | 4.083 | 4.615 | 0.461 | −1.056 | 3.632 |
Trade | 2325 | 4.278 | 0.155 | 4.286 | 6.083 | 0.535 | −1.494 | 14.626 |
IFDI | 2325 | 1.405 | 0.000 | 1.356 | 4.648 | 0.754 | 0.649 | 3.837 |
GI | 2325 | 1.937 | 0.000 | 0.916 | 8.890 | 2.304 | 1.096 | 3.256 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
L. EPI | 0.814 *** | 0.665 *** | 0.454 *** | 0.363 *** |
(155.008) | (99.538) | (62.360) | (12.932) | |
Uncertainty | −0.372 *** | −0.046 *** | −0.046 *** | −0.191 *** |
(−18.510) | (−3.334) | (−2.905) | (−3.245) | |
GDP | 0.016 | 0.156 *** | 0.203 *** | |
(1.506) | (9.526) | (3.976) | ||
IND | 0.194 *** | 0.013 | −0.049 | |
(11.572) | (0.915) | (−1.418) | ||
POP | −10.291 *** | −3.608 | ||
(−4.491) | (−0.766) | |||
Density | 11.532 *** | 5.293 | ||
(4.766) | (1.100) | |||
Aging | −0.062 | 0.607 *** | ||
(−0.846) | (3.313) | |||
Urban | −0.314 | |||
(−1.367) | ||||
Trade | 0.011 * | |||
(1.684) | ||||
IFDI | −0.016 * | |||
(−1.669) | ||||
GI | −0.136 *** | |||
(−6.789) | ||||
Year FE | no | yes | yes | yes |
N | 2051 | 2051 | 2051 | 2051 |
AR (1) | −8.619 | −7.376 | −5.931 | −6.311 |
AR (1)-P | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
AR (2) | −0.970 | −1.057 | 1.449 | −1.536 |
AR (2)-P | 0.332 | 0.291 | 0.147 | 0.125 |
Hansen-P | 0.310 | 0.162 | 0.225 | 0.497 |
Wald | 376.14 | 416.98 | 546. 91 | 578.34 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
L.EPI | 0.398 *** | 0.373 *** | 0.413 *** | 0.371 *** |
(12.960) | (13.938) | (13.340) | (12.488) | |
ΔUncertainty | −0.288 *** | |||
(−5.810) | ||||
ΔUncertainty_trade | −0.009 *** | |||
(−3.557) | ||||
ΔUncertainty_absolute | −0.028 *** | |||
(−4.685) | ||||
ΔUncertainty_season | −0.258 *** | |||
(−5.194) | ||||
GDP | 0.175 *** | 0.206 *** | 0.159 *** | 0.210 *** |
(3.019) | (5.074) | (2.814) | (3.557) | |
IND | −0.042 | −0.027 | −0.003 | −0.036 |
(−1.038) | (−0.913) | (−0.073) | (−0.888) | |
POP | −3.904 | −5.062 | −0.935 | −1.970 |
(−0.817) | (−1.188) | (−0.185) | (−0.355) | |
Density | 5.500 | 6.631 | 2.405 | 3.687 |
(1.114) | (1.523) | (0.461) | (0.644) | |
Aging | 0.594 *** | 0.453 *** | 0.596 *** | 0.652 *** |
(3.433) | (2.689) | (3.527) | (3.518) | |
Urban | −0.300 | −0.411 * | −0.280 | −0.461 * |
(−1.296) | (−1.862) | (−1.132) | (−1.916) | |
Trade | 0.016 ** | 0.003 | 0.016 ** | 0.017 ** |
(2.273) | (0.671) | (2.416) | (2.461) | |
IFDI | −0.019 * | −0.010 | −0.022 ** | −0.016 |
(−1.798) | (−1.222) | (−2.265) | (−1.427) | |
GI | −0.139 *** | −0.112 *** | −0.128 *** | −0.144 *** |
(−5.856) | (−5.569) | (−5.553) | (−6.312) | |
Year FE | yes | yes | yes | yes |
N | 2051 | 2051 | 2051 | 2051 |
AR (1) | −6.673 | −6.340 | −6.455 | −6.611 |
AR (1)-P | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
AR (2) | −0.471 | −1.376 | −0.776 | −1.267 |
AR (2)-P | 0.637 | 0.169 | 0.438 | 0.205 |
Hansen-P | 0.426 | 0.511 | 0.534 | 0.497 |
Wald | 943.08 | 716.28 | 749.32 | 649.33 |
(1) OECD | (2) GDP | (3) GLOBAL | (4) WGI | |
---|---|---|---|---|
L.EPI | 0.391 *** | 0.389 *** | 0.352 *** | 0.407 *** |
(14.297) | (13.751) | (12.033) | (13.734) | |
Uncertainty | −0.254 *** | −0.816 *** | −1.991 ** | −0.424 *** |
(−3.961) | (−4.025) | (−2.265) | (−3.776) | |
Uncertainty*OECD | 0.226 * | |||
(1.847) | ||||
Uncertainty*GDP | 0.076 *** | |||
(2.817) | ||||
Uncertainty*GLOBAL | 0.430 ** | |||
(2.017) | ||||
GLOBAL | 1.391 *** | |||
(4.169) | ||||
Uncertainty*WGI | 0.427 * | |||
(1.943) | ||||
WGI | 1.404 *** | |||
(5.403) | ||||
GDP | 0.211 *** | 0.211 *** | 0.022 | 0.045 |
(3.632) | (3.558) | (0.457) | (0.718) | |
IND | −0.046 | −0.047 | −0.057 * | −0.014 |
(−1.259) | (−1.310) | (−1.678) | (−0.327) | |
POP | −4.305 | −2.715 | −1.738 | −1.643 |
(−0.970) | (−0.610) | (−0.464) | (−0.387) | |
Density | 6.218 | 4.546 | 2.780 | 3.326 |
(1.382) | (1.006) | (0.732) | (0.766) | |
Aging | 0.654 *** | 0.636 *** | 0.427 *** | 0.665 *** |
(3.275) | (3.257) | (2.690) | (3.598) | |
Urban | −0.376 * | −0.307 | −0.075 | −0.175 |
(−1.742) | (−1.455) | (−0.329) | (−0.759) | |
Trade | 0.012 * | 0.012 ** | 0.011 | 0.011 * |
(1.883) | (2.046) | (0.491) | (1.814) | |
IFDI | −0.020 * | −0.017 * | −0.025 ** | −0.014 |
(−1.917) | (−1.693) | (−2.517) | (−1.420) | |
GI | −0.134 *** | −0.132 *** | −0.098 *** | −0.128 *** |
(−6.353) | (−6.314) | (−5.549) | (−6.301) | |
Year FE | yes | yes | yes | yes |
N | 2051 | 2051 | 2035 | 2035 |
AR (1) | −6.182 | −6.252 | −5.976 | −6.380 |
AR (1)-P | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
AR (2) | −1.236 | −1.240 | −2.277 | −1.240 |
AR (2)-P | 0.217 | 0.215 | 0.023 | 0.215 |
Hansen-P | 0.449 | 0.446 | 0.325 | 0.350 |
Wald | 346.19 | 498.26 | 691.57 | 711.95 |
(1) Left | (2) Right | (3) Democracy | (4) Non-Democracy | |
---|---|---|---|---|
L. EPI | 0.224 *** | 0.203 *** | 0.176 *** | 0.317 *** |
(11.812) | (13.249) | (8.110) | (17.557) | |
Uncertainty | −0.055 *** | −0.069 *** | −0.061 *** | −0.149 *** |
(−2.857) | (−4.517) | (−3.027) | (−7.365) | |
GDP | 0.168 *** | 0.009 | −0.110 *** | 0.084 ** |
(6.017) | (0.254) | (−4.660) | (2.225) | |
IND | −0.047 *** | 0.113 ** | −0.034 *** | −0.000 |
(−4.391) | (2.486) | (−4.300) | (−0.017) | |
POP | −2.116 | 13.783 *** | −4.937 *** | −3.466 |
(−1.418) | (4.445) | (−3.407) | (−1.603) | |
Density | 2.624 * | −12.318 *** | 4.097 *** | 5.257 ** |
(1.835) | (−3.957) | (2.729) | (2.378) | |
Aging | −0.108 | 0.250 | −0.387 *** | 0.362 *** |
(−1.054) | (1.281) | (−5.111) | (3.702) | |
Urban | 0.037 | −0.160 | 0.640 *** | −0.205 |
(0.253) | (−0.619) | (4.420) | (−1.254) | |
Trade | 0.063 *** | −0.050 *** | −0.002 | 0.006 |
(6.563) | (−2.676) | (−0.855) | (0.354) | |
IFDI | −0.011 *** | 0.028 *** | 0.004 | 0.031 *** |
(−5.519) | (4.019) | (1.094) | (4.397) | |
GI | −0.011 *** | −0.003 | −0.036 *** | −0.080 *** |
(−2.768) | (−0.555) | (−8.976) | (−8.883) | |
Year FE | yes | yes | yes | yes |
N | 576 | 551 | 786 | 1233 |
AR (1) | −3.365 | −2.189 | −2.968 | −5.636 |
AR (1)-P | 0.001 | 0.029 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
AR (2) | −1.768 | 1.561 | −0.067 | −1.209 |
AR (2)-P | 0.177 | 0.119 | 0.947 | 0.227 |
Hansen-P | 0.981 | 0.915 | 0.996 | 0.709 |
Wald | 461.34 | 591.48 | 667.31 | 430.28 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Su, H.; Geng, Y.; Xia, X.-Q.; Wang, Q.-J. Economic Policy Uncertainty, Social Development, Political Regimes and Environmental Quality. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042450
Su H, Geng Y, Xia X-Q, Wang Q-J. Economic Policy Uncertainty, Social Development, Political Regimes and Environmental Quality. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(4):2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042450
Chicago/Turabian StyleSu, Hang, Yong Geng, Xi-Qiang Xia, and Quan-Jing Wang. 2022. "Economic Policy Uncertainty, Social Development, Political Regimes and Environmental Quality" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 4: 2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042450
APA StyleSu, H., Geng, Y., Xia, X.-Q., & Wang, Q.-J. (2022). Economic Policy Uncertainty, Social Development, Political Regimes and Environmental Quality. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(4), 2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042450