A Guide to Different Intensities of Exercise, Vaccination, and Sports Nutrition in the Course of Preparing Elite Athletes for the Management of Upper Respiratory Infections during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Narrative Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Analysis Method
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Low-Intensity Exercise and Athletes’ Immune Systems
3.2. Moderate-Intensity Exercise and Athletes’ Immune Systems
3.3. High-Intensity Exercise and Athletes’ Immune Systems
4. Respiratory Infections and Exercise
5. Management during Athletes Infection
6. How Can Athletes Get Vaccinated While They Continue Training?
7. The Importance of Nutrition
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Authors | Intensity | Results | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Mee-Inta et al. (2019) | Low | Increases IL- 10 and IL-6 and decreases cortisol levels | [23] |
Tenorio et al. (2019) | Low | Increases IL- 10 levels and T cell numbers. Improves immune system function | [25] |
Petersen and Pedersen. (2005) | Low | Decreases IL- 1β and TNF-α levels. Improved immune system function | [27] |
Steensberg et al. (2003) | Low | Increase in IL- 10 and T cells. Improves immune system function | [22] |
Author | Type of Exercise | Intensity of Exercise | Results | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Raines et al. (2020) | Resistance | 45%, 75% and 95% 1RM | Increase in IL- 6 at 75% and 95% 1RM No change in 45% 1RM | [39] |
Xiao et al. (2020) | Resistance and aerobic | Walking: 5 days a week, 30 min with an average intensity of 45 VO2max for 12 weeks. Resistance training: 2 sets of resistance training with banding and Borg scale between 12 to 13. Intensity was higher than 60% 1RM. | High-intensity resistance training: Increases IL-1 and TNF-α and C-reactive protein.Walking: Increases IL-10 | [40] |
Scheffer and Latini (2020) | High-intensity | Review study | Exercise intensity 46–63% VO2max: Increases anti-inflammatory cytokines including IL-10, IL-6, and IL-7. 64 to 100% VO2max increases L-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-17A and IL-15 | [41] |
Dixit (2020) | Aerobic | Review study | 45 to 60% VO2max increases antipathogen activity, recirculation of immunoglobulins, anti-inflammatory cytokines, neutrophils, NK cells, cytotoxic T cells, and immature B cells. | [42] |
Highton et al. (2020) | Aerobic | 20 min walking at 60–70% VO2peak | Increase notrophil and monocyte | [43] |
Sitlinger et al. (2020) | Moderate intensity | Review study | Increases T cells, natural killer cells, neutrophils, monocytes, and B cells | [44] |
de Souza et al. (2018) | Aerobic | Running on a treadmill at a speed of 3.0 km/h in increments of 1.0 km/h every minute until voluntary exhaustion Running with moderate intensity for 20 min at 65–75% of HRpeak | Increases IL-6, IL-4, and interferon-γ. Decrease IL-6, IL-4, and interferon-γ. | [45] |
Hajizadeh et al. (2018) | Aerobic | Over the first 12 weeks of the intervention, walked or jogged on a treadmill at 45–55% of their VO2max (25–30 min/day, 3–4 days/week), and after that exercised by an intensity of 56–69% of VO2max (40–45 min/day, 4–6 days/week) over the final 12 weeks. | Decrease IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α and increase IL-10 | [46] |
Durrer et al. (2017) | Aerobic | 7 × 1 min at ~85% maximal aerobic power output, separated by 1 min of recovery on a cycle ergometer. | Increases TNF-α | [47] |
Szlezak et al. (2016) | Aerobic and anaerobic | Systematic review | Exercise with an intensity of 45 to 65% VO2max: increases T cells, natural killer cells, neutrophils, monocytes, and B cells .Exercise with an intensity of 64 to 100% VO2max: increases L-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-17A and IL-15 | [48] |
Dorneles et al. (2016) | Aerobic and anaerobic | 10 × 60 s (85–90%PMax)/75 s (50%PMax) 10 × 60 s (70–75%PMax)/60 s (50%PMax) | increases IL-1ra, IL-6 and IL-8. increases IL-10 | [49] |
Sarir et al. (2015) | Anaerobic | Running on a treadmill for five days, 10 min/day at a 10 m/min speed. Then, six sessions per week at 95–100% VO2max for six weeks. Active rest was performed between intervals for 60 s at 16 m/min. | increases IL-6 and TNF-α | [50] |
Neves et al. (2015) | Anaerobic and aerobic | High-intensity exercise (80% VO2peak), low exercise intensity (40% VO2peak). | High-intensity exercise: increases in leukocyte, Lymphocyte, and monocyte. Low-intensity exercise: does not produce any changes. | [51] |
Zwetsloot et al. (2014) | Anaerobic | Two weeks of cycle ergometer, 3 session per week (8–12 intervals; 60-s intervals, 75-s active rest) at 100% VO2max. | Increases IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, monocyte and TNF-α. | [52] |
Gholamnezhad et al. (2014) | Anaerobic and aerobic | Moderate training (20 m/min, 30 min/day, 6 days a week, eight weeks), overtraining (25 m/min, 60 min/day, 6 days a week, 11 weeks). | Increases IL-10 Increases TNFα, IL-6, interferon-γ, and IL-4. | [53] |
Zimmer et al. (2014) | Aerobic | Exercise with 30 min at moderate intensity on a bicycle ergometer. | Increases NK-cells, IL-6, and CD8 (+) T-lymphocytes | [54] |
Name of the Nutrient/Food | Impact on the Immune System | Source |
---|---|---|
Blueberry | Reduces inflammation and oxidative stress | [78] |
Vitamin E | Strengthen the immune system and antioxidative activity | [79] |
Papaya | Strengthen the immune system due to its enzymes (Papain), lycopene, carotenoids, alkaloids, monoterpenoids, flavonoids, minerals, and vitamins | [80] |
Yogurt | Immune system stimulating effects | [81] |
Ginger | Strengthen the immune system | [82] |
Green tea | Antioxidant/improves the immune system | [83] |
Vitamin D | Regulation of immune system function and proliferation of hematopoietic cells | [84] |
Zinc | Improves the immune system and is effective for upper respiratory infections | [85,86] |
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Agha-Alinejad, H.; Ahmadi Hekmatikar, A.H.; Ruhee, R.T.; Shamsi, M.M.; Rahmati, M.; Khoramipour, K.; Suzuki, K. A Guide to Different Intensities of Exercise, Vaccination, and Sports Nutrition in the Course of Preparing Elite Athletes for the Management of Upper Respiratory Infections during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1888. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031888
Agha-Alinejad H, Ahmadi Hekmatikar AH, Ruhee RT, Shamsi MM, Rahmati M, Khoramipour K, Suzuki K. A Guide to Different Intensities of Exercise, Vaccination, and Sports Nutrition in the Course of Preparing Elite Athletes for the Management of Upper Respiratory Infections during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Narrative Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(3):1888. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031888
Chicago/Turabian StyleAgha-Alinejad, Hamid, Amir Hossein Ahmadi Hekmatikar, Ruheea Taskin Ruhee, Mahdieh Molanouri Shamsi, Masoud Rahmati, Kayvan Khoramipour, and Katsuhiko Suzuki. 2022. "A Guide to Different Intensities of Exercise, Vaccination, and Sports Nutrition in the Course of Preparing Elite Athletes for the Management of Upper Respiratory Infections during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Narrative Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 3: 1888. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031888