Gender Differences in Associations between Biomechanical and Psychosocial Work Exposures and Age of Withdrawal from Paid Employment among Older Workers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Sources, Study Population and Study Design
2.2. Withdrawal from Paid Employment
- i.
- Retirement: receiving at least 50% flexible retirement pension and working fewer than 20 h per week.
- ii.
- Withdrawal due to health-related reasons: (a) receiving at least 50% disability pension, or (b) receiving at least 50% sickness benefits or AAP for at least six months, or fewer than six months if followed by a transition to disability pension.
- iii.
- Unemployment: registered as fully unemployed for at least six months.
- iv.
- Death or emigration.
- v.
- Other reasons: registered as not employed two years in a row in the annual labour market records.
2.3. Work Exposures
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
2.6. Sensitivity Analyses
3. Results
Sensitivity Analyses
4. Discussion
4.1. Summary of the Main Findings
4.2. Strengths and Limitations
4.3. Discussion and Interpretation of the Results
4.4. Generalisability
4.5. Study Implications and Future Directions
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Men | Women | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Withdrew | Total | Withdrew | |||
N | % | % | N | % | % | |
Total | 77,558 | 100 | 46 | 67,773 | 100 | 49 |
Calendar year at baseline (birth year) | ||||||
2011 (1949) | 15,261 | 20 | 64 | 13,183 | 20 | 68 |
2012 (1950) | 14,866 | 19 | 56 | 13,032 | 19 | 62 |
2013 (1951) | 15,202 | 19 | 46 | 13,074 | 19 | 50 |
2014 (1952) | 16,040 | 21 | 37 | 14,003 | 21 | 39 |
2015 (1953) | 16,189 | 21 | 29 | 14,481 | 21 | 29 |
Civil status | ||||||
Single | 20,457 | 26 | 48 | 22,280 | 33 | 44 |
Married/Cohabiting | 56,962 | 73 | 45 | 45,442 | 67 | 52 |
Unknown | 139 | <1 | 60 | 51 | <1 | 51 |
Education level | ||||||
Lower secondary or lower | 9460 | 12 | 54 | 8186 | 12 | 54 |
Upper secondary basic level | 18,584 | 24 | 51 | 22,565 | 33 | 52 |
Upper secondary final year | 21,093 | 27 | 49 | 12,413 | 18 | 48 |
Bachelor | 18,051 | 24 | 42 | 20,522 | 30 | 48 |
Master or higher | 10,102 | 13 | 30 | 3951 | 6 | 31 |
Unknown | 268 | <1 | 51 | 136 | <1 | 49 |
Biomechanical exposures 1 | ||||||
Heavy lifting | 34,035 | 44 | 52 | 18,717 | 28 | 54 |
Neck flexion | 12,718 | 16 | 53 | 18,736 | 28 | 52 |
Hands above shoulder height | 19,485 | 25 | 52 | 10,164 | 15 | 52 |
Squatting/kneeling | 10,216 | 13 | 54 | 15,630 | 23 | 55 |
Forward bending | 6052 | 8 | 53 | 9174 | 14 | 52 |
Awkward lifting | 7079 | 9 | 55 | 13,693 | 20 | 54 |
Heavy physical work | 24,254 | 31 | 53 | 15,631 | 23 | 54 |
Standing/walking | 30,764 | 40 | 53 | 39,001 | 58 | 52 |
Psychosocial exposures 1 | ||||||
Monotonous work | 32,150 | 41 | 52 | 29,717 | 44 | 50 |
Low supportive leadership | 40,110 | 52 | 47 | 40,894 | 60 | 49 |
High psychological demands | 37,130 | 48 | 40 | 35,883 | 53 | 48 |
High emotional demands | 23,711 | 31 | 46 | 50,887 | 75 | 49 |
Low decision latitude | 25,976 | 33 | 53 | 49,727 | 73 | 51 |
Job strain | 7256 | 9 | 48 | 24,328 | 36 | 51 |
Iso-strain | 6041 | 8 | 48 | 23,468 | 35 | 51 |
Men | Women | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Withdrawal from Paid Employment | N | % | N | % |
All-cause withdrawal | 35,609 | 100 | 33,358 | 100 |
Withdrawal due to retirement | 22,202 | 62 | 18,814 | 56 |
Withdrawal due to health reasons | 8782 | 25 | 10,073 | 30 |
Withdrawal due to unemployment | 1256 | 4 | 615 | 2 |
Withdrawal due to other reasons | 2889 | 8 | 3648 | 11 |
Withdrawal due to death or emigration | 480 | 1 | 208 | 1 |
Men | Women | Gender Difference | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude 1 (95% CI 2) | Adjusted 3 (95% CI) | Crude 1 (95% CI) | Adjusted 3 (95% CI) | Adjusted 4 (95% CI) | |
Biomechanical exposures | |||||
Heavy lifting | 5.90 (5.68–6.41) | 3.02 (2.63–3.42) | 3.29 (3.02–3.58) | 2.74 (2.33–3.14) | 0.28 (−0.29–0.83) |
Neck flexion | 4.13 (3.90–4.59) | 1.97 (1.50–2.43) | 2.27 (1.94–2.43) | 1.87 (1.47–2.29) | 0.09 (−0.53–0.71) |
Hands above shoulder height | 4.35 (4.00–4.57) | 2.33 (1.94–2.74) | 1.16 (0.76–1.87) | −0.08 (−0.62–0.47) | 2.41 (1.76–3.10) |
Squatting/kneeling | 5.17 (4.89–5.62) | 2.68 (2.19–3.20) | 3.66 (3.37–3.84) | 2.91 (2.49–3.36) | −0.23 (−0.87–0.44) |
Forward bending | 3.94 (3.61–4.32) | 1.85 (1.23–2.47) | 1.86 (1.67–2.29) | 1.34 (0.82–1.84) | 0.51 (−0.25–1.33) |
Awkward lifting | 5.28 (4.92–5.65) | 2.69 (2.08–3.24) | 2.89 (2.41–3.21) | 2.28 (1.85–2.74) | 0.41 (−0.34–1.13) |
Heavy physical work | 5.70 (5.44–5.94) | 2.98 (2.59–3.39) | 3.02 (2.98–3.55) | 2.33 (1.89–2.83) | 0.65 (0.03–1.26) |
Standing/walking | 6.24 (5.97–6.47) | 4.43 (4.07–4.81) | 3.73 (3.40–3.97) | 2.95 (2.57–3.32) | 1.48 (0.98–2.00) |
Psychosocial exposures | |||||
Monotonous work | 5.38 (5.18–5.58) | 2.83 (2.45–3.19) | 0.19 (−0.07–0.39) | −1.29 (−1.68–−0.87) | 4.12 (3.51–4.69) |
Low supportive leadership | 1.09 (0.86–1.17) | 1.02 (0.67–1.37) | 0.55 (0.31–0.82) | 1.18 (0.80–1.53) | −0.16 (−0.68–0.36) |
High psychological demands | −6.01 (−6.38–−5.69) | −3.66 (−4.04–−3.25) | −0.78 (−0.99–−0.63) | 0.71 (0.28–1.10) | −4.37 (−4.97–−3.81) |
Emotional demands | −0.08 (−0.35–0.28) | 1.84 (1.48–2.24) | −0.33 (−0.67–0.03) | 0.13 (−0.26–0.59) | 1.71 (1.17–2.29) |
Low decision latitude | 5.54 (5.12–5.85) | 4.07 (3.70–4.45) | 4.17 (3.92–4.52) | 3.00 (2.58–3.43) | 1.07 (0.49–1.63) |
High job strain | 1.89 (1.26–2.67) | 3.89 (3.30–4.50) | 1.71 (1.34–1.98) | 2.06 (1.64–2.44) | 1.83 (1.13–2.60) |
High iso-strain | 1.41 (0.87–1.84) | 4.14 (3.47–4.84) | 1.68 (1.37–1.83) | 2.00 (1.61–2.40) | 2.14 (1.38–2.95) |
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Undem, K.; Leinonen, T.; Kristensen, P.; Merkus, S.L.; Hasting, R.L.; Gran, J.M.; Mehlum, I.S. Gender Differences in Associations between Biomechanical and Psychosocial Work Exposures and Age of Withdrawal from Paid Employment among Older Workers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10563. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710563
Undem K, Leinonen T, Kristensen P, Merkus SL, Hasting RL, Gran JM, Mehlum IS. Gender Differences in Associations between Biomechanical and Psychosocial Work Exposures and Age of Withdrawal from Paid Employment among Older Workers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(17):10563. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710563
Chicago/Turabian StyleUndem, Karina, Taina Leinonen, Petter Kristensen, Suzanne L. Merkus, Rachel L. Hasting, Jon Michael Gran, and Ingrid S. Mehlum. 2022. "Gender Differences in Associations between Biomechanical and Psychosocial Work Exposures and Age of Withdrawal from Paid Employment among Older Workers" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 17: 10563. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710563