An Educational Intervention for Improving the Snacks and Beverages Brought to Youth Sports in the USA
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Purpose
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Intervention Development
2.3. Measurement Instruments and Procedures
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Nutrition Content
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ludwig, D.S.; Hu, F.B.; Tappy, L.; Brand-Miller, J. Dietary carbohydrates: Role of quality and quantity in chronic disease. BMJ 2018, 361, k2340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Craigie, A.M.; Lake, A.A.; Kelly, S.A.; Adamson, A.J.; Mathers, J.C. Tracking of obesity-related behaviours from childhood to adulthood: A systematic review. Maturitas 2011, 70, 266–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hales, C.M.; Carroll, M.D.; Fryar, C.D.; Ogden, C.L. Prevalence of obesity among adults and youth: United States, 2015–2016. In NCHS Data Brief; DHHS Publication: Washington, DC, USA, 2017; no. 288; pp. 1–8. [Google Scholar]
- Banfield, E.C.; Liu, Y.; Davis, J.S.; Chang, S.; Frazier-Wood, A.C. Poor adherence to US Dietary Guidelines for children and adolescents in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey population. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2016, 116, 21–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dunford, E.K.; Popkin, B.M. 37 year snacking trends for US children 1977. Pediatr. Obes. 2018, 13, 247–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McLeroy, K.; Bibeau, D.; Steckler, A.; Glanz, K. An ecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Educ. Q. 1988, 15, 351–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Freeland-Graves, J.H.; Nitzke, S. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Total diet approach to healthy eating. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2013, 113, 307–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramsey, A.; Weaver, A.; Haldeman, L. Managing youth recreational sports to promote healthier eating. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2017, 49, S70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ziauddeen, N.; Page, P.; Penney, T.L.; Nicholson, S.; Kirk, S.F.; Almiron-Roig, E. Eating at food outlets and leisure places and “on the go” is associated with less-healthy food choices than eating at home and in school in children: Cross-sectional data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey Rolling Program (2008–2014). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 107, 992–1003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lachat, C.; Nago, E.; Verstraeten, R.; Roberfroid, D.; Van Camp, J.; Kolsteren, P. Eating out of home and its association with dietary intake: A systematic review of the evidence. Obes. Rev. 2012, 13, 329–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- D’Aria, M. Nutritional Composition of Snacks Offered to Young Recreational Soccer Players. Ph.D. Dissertation, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, VA, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Yoshinaga, A.M. Snacking in Youth Sport. Master’s Dissertation, California State University, Long Beach, CA, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Drewnowski, A.; Rehm, C.D. Consumption of added sugars among US children and adults by food purchase location and food source. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 100, 901–907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tasevska, N.; DeLia, D.; Lorts, C.; Yedidia, M.; Ohri-Vachaspati, P. Determinants of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption among low-income children: Are there differences by race/ethnicity, age, and sex? J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2017, 117, 1900–1920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bennion, N.; Spruance, L.A.; Maddock, J.E. Do youth consume more calories than they expended in youth sports leagues? An observational study of physical activity, snacks, and beverages. Am. J. Health Behav. 2020, 44, 180–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rafferty, A.; Gray, V.B.; Nguyen, J.; Nguyen-Rodriguez, S.; Barrack, M.; Lin, S. Parents report competing priorities influence snack choice in youth sports. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2018, 50, 1032–1039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Spruance, L.A.; Vaterlaus, J.M.; Haines, A.; Walker, J. “Please bring a healthy snack”: An exploratory study on parent experiences with post-game snacks and beverages in youth sports. J. Park Recreat. Admin. 2020, 38, 15–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willingham, C.; Wagle, A.; Pignotti, G. Post-activity nutrition for youth in recreational sports. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2016, 116, A28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olstad, D.L.; Goonewardene, L.A.; McCargar, L.J.; Raine, K.D. Choosing healthier foods in recreational sports settings: A mixed methods investigation of the impact of nudging and an economic incentive. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2014, 11, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Olstad, D.L.; Vermeer, J.; McCargar, L.J.; Prowse, R.J.; Raine, K.D. Using traffic light labels to improve food selection in recreation and sport facility eating environments. Appetite 2015, 91, 329–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- United States Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service. A Guide to Smart Snacks in School: Help Make the Healthy Choice the Easy Choice for Kids at School. Available online: https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/USDASmartSnacks_508_62019.pdf (accessed on 12 November 2019).
- Vos, M.B.; Kaar, J.L.; Welsh, J.A.; Van Horn, L.V.; Feig, D.I.; Anderson, C.A.; Patel, M.J.; Cruz Munos, J.; Krebs, N.F.; Xanthakos, S.A.; et al. Added sugars and cardiovascular disease risk in children: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2017, 135, e1017–e1034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Healthy Eating Research. The Associations between Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption and Children’s Health: An Updated Review of the Literature. Available online: https://healthyeatingresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/her_ssbs_child_health_02918.pdf (accessed on 15 January 2020).
- Alexander Bentley, R.; Ruck, D.J.; Fouts, H.N. U.S. obesity as delayed effect of excess sugar. Econ. Hum. Biol. 2020, 36, 100818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American Academy of Pediatrics. Sports drinks and energy drinks for children and adolescents: Are they appropriate? Pediatrics 2011, 127, 1182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kim, S.A.; Moore, L.V.; Galuska, D.; Wright, A.P.; Harris, D.; Grummer-Strawn, L.M.; Merlo, C.L.; Nihiser, A.J.; Rhodes, D.G. Vital signs: Fruit and vegetable intake among children—United States, 2003–2010. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2014, 63, 671. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- United States Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Agriculture. 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Available online: http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines (accessed on 12 December 2019).
- Vo, L.; Albrecht, S.S.; Kershaw, K.N. Multilevel interventions to prevent and reduce obesity. Curr. Opin. Endocr. Metab. Res. 2019, 4, 62–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poti, J.M.; Slining, M.M.; Popkin, B.M. Where are kids getting their empty calories? Stores, schools, and fast-food restaurants each played an important role in empty calorie intake among US children during 2009. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2014, 114, 908–917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Huncharek, M.; Muscat, J.; Kupelnick, B. Impact of dairy products and dietary calcium on bone-mineral content in children: Results of a meta-analysis. Bone 2008, 43, 312–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sacheck, J.M.; Nelson, T.; Ficker, L.; Kafka, T.; Kuder, J.; Economos, C.D. Physical activity during soccer and its contribution to physical activity recommendations in normal weight and overweight children. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 2011, 23, 281–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schlechter, C.R.; Rosenkranz, R.R.; Milliken, G.A.; Dzewaltowski, D.A. Physical activity levels during youth sport practice: Does coach training or experience have an influence? J. Sports Sci. 2017, 35, 22–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variable | Baseline n = 61 Mean (SD) ^ | Comparison n = 74 Mean (SD) ^ | p-Value * |
---|---|---|---|
Total Calories | 228.0 (118.0) | 217.0 (83.4) | 0.56 |
Calories for Beverages Only | 78.1 (52.3) | 61.8 (27.1) | 0.05 |
Calories for Snacks only | 169.1 (100.5) | 169.6 (78.8) | 0.94 |
Total Sugar (g) | 28.8 (13.5) | 25.7 (10.4) | 0.17 |
Total Sugar for beverages only | 19.3 (12.2) | 15.3 (7.0) | 0.07 |
Total Sugar for snacks only | 13.0 (11.0) | 13 (8.1) | 0.99 |
Sodium (mg) | 227.4 (118.0) | 186.8 (116.6) | 0.05 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 43.0 (19.5) | 38.6 (14.2) | 0.13 |
Fat (g) | 6.1 (5.3) | 6.6 (4.0) | 0.53 |
Saturated Fat (g) | 2.0 (2.1) | 3.2 (4.3) | 0.05 |
Fiber (g) | 0.8 (1.0) | 0.6 (0.5) | 0.13 |
Protein (g) | 2.5 (5.9) | 1.6 (1.1) | 0.20 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 1.9 (6.5) | 2.9 (6.2) | 0.36 |
Variable | Baseline n = 61 Mean (SD) ^ | Intervention n = 122 Mean (SD) ^ | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Total calories | 201.9 (133.0) | 169.4 (110.0) | 0.08 |
Calories for Beverages Only | 49.8 (53.0) | 38.5 (46.1) | 0.159 |
Calories for Snacks only | 144.2 (110.7) | 131.0 (90.5) | 0.39 |
Total Sugar (g) | 25.5 (15.7) | 16.7 (11.6) | <0.001 * |
Total Sugar for beverages only | 14.9 (13.5) | 8.4 (9.3) | <0.001 * |
Total Sugar for snacks only | 10.5 (8.9) | 8.2 (8.0) | 0.05 |
Sodium (mg) | 201.3 (199.8) | 174.9 (170.9) | 0.35 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 38.1 (23.0) | 28.4 (17.8) | <0.001 * |
Fat (g) | 5.4 (5.3) | 5.6 (5.6) | 0.82 |
Saturated Fat (g) | 1.7 (2.1) | 1.8 (2.4) | 0.78 |
Fiber (g) | 0.7 (1.0) | 1.0 (1.0) | 0.06 |
Protein (g) | 2.2 (5.6) | 2.7 (3.2) | 0.44 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 1.7 (6.2) | 4.8 (10.4) | 0.03 * |
Variable | Baseline n = 54 Mean (SD) ^ | Intervention n = 105 Mean (SD) ^ | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Total calories (kcals) Calories for beverages only † Calories for snacks only † | 228.0 (118.0) 78.1 (52.3) 169.1 (100.5) | 196.8 (92.9) 70.0 (40.7) 155.1 (76.97) | 0.07 0.36 0.34 |
Total Sugar (g) Total Sugar for beverages only † Total Sugar for snacks only † | 28.8 (13.5) 19.3 (12.2) 14.14 (10.79) | 19.4 (10.1) 15.3 (10.0) 10.71 (6.60) | <0.001 * 0.03 * 0.03 * |
Sodium (mg) | 227.4 (118.0) | 203.2 (167.8) | 0.31 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 43.0 (19.5) | 33.0 (14.7) | <0.001 * |
Fat (g) | 6.1 (5.3) | 6.5 (5.5) | 0.64 |
Saturated Fat (g) | 2.0 (2.1) | 2.1 (2.4) | 0.78 |
Fiber (g) | 0.8 (1.0) | 1.2 (1.0) | 0.01 * |
Protein (g) | 2.5 (5.9) | 3.2 (3.3) | 0.30 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 1.9 (6.5) | 5.6 (11.0) | 0.03 * |
Snack/Beverage Offered | Baseline n = 316 + | Intervention n = 215 + | p-Value * |
---|---|---|---|
Frequency (%) | Frequency (%) | ||
Snacks | 171 (54.1) | 134 (62.5) | 0.06 |
Baked goods (i.e., cookies, cakes, donuts) | 50 (29.20) | 19 (14.1) | 0.02 * |
Fruit Snacks | 27 (15.8) | 14 (10.4) | 0.03 * |
Crackers | 20 (11.7) | 14 (10.4) | 0.93 |
Chips | 20 (11.7) | 16 (11.9) | 0.62 |
Rice Krispies | 17 (9.9) | 2 (1.5) | 0.006 * |
Granola Bar | 11 (6.4) | 26 (19.3) | <0.001* |
Candy | 8 (4.7) | 0 (0) | 0.02 * |
Popsicle | 6 (3.5) | 1 (0.7) | 0.25 |
Fruit/Vegetable | 6 (3.5) | 20 (14.8) | <0.001 * |
Popcorn | 5 (2.9) | 4 (3.0) | 0.99 |
Pizza | 1 (0.6) | - | 0.99 |
Cheese stick | - | 11 (8.1) | <0.001* |
Yogurt | - | 4 (3.0) | 0.03* |
Apple Sauce | - | 2 (1.5) | 0.16 |
Ice Cream | - | 1 (0.7) | 0.41 |
Beverage Offered | 145 (45.9) | 81 (37.5) | 0.06 |
Sugar-Sweetened Beverages | 127 (87.6) | 65 (80.2) | 0.02 * |
Juice (e.g., Capri Sun, Kool-Aid) | 72 (49.7) | 46 (56.8) | 0.71 |
Sports drinks | 51 (34.5) | 19 (23.5) | 0.01 * |
Soda | 4 (2.8) | - | 0.15 |
Non-SSB | 18 (12.4) | 16 (19.8) | 0.43 |
Water | 5 (3.4) | 13 (16.0) | 0.005 * |
Milk | 1 (0.7) | 3 (3.7) | 0.31 |
100% Fruit Juice | 12 (8.3) | - | 0.002 * |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Spruance, L.A.; Bennion, N.; Ghanadan, G.; Maddock, J.E. An Educational Intervention for Improving the Snacks and Beverages Brought to Youth Sports in the USA. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094886
Spruance LA, Bennion N, Ghanadan G, Maddock JE. An Educational Intervention for Improving the Snacks and Beverages Brought to Youth Sports in the USA. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(9):4886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094886
Chicago/Turabian StyleSpruance, Lori Andersen, Natalie Bennion, Gabriel Ghanadan, and Jay E. Maddock. 2021. "An Educational Intervention for Improving the Snacks and Beverages Brought to Youth Sports in the USA" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 9: 4886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094886