Longitudinal Changes in Gambling, Buying and Materialism in Adolescents: A Population-Based Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Compulsive Buying
1.2. Compulsive Buying and Materialism
1.3. Compulsive Buying and Gambling Disorder
1.4. Gambling-Related Cognitive Distortions
1.5. Aims and Hypothesis
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedure
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. Gambling Disorder
2.2.2. Compulsive Buying
2.3. Materialism
2.4. Ethics
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Comparison of the Mean Scores at the Two Assessments (T1 and T2)
3.2. Path Analysis
4. Discussion
Limitations and Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Total Sample (n = 182) | Pre-Post Changes | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | T2 | T-Test Paired Samples | |||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | p | 95%CI MD | ||
Gambling disorder severity (CAGI) | |||||||
Total score | 1.03 | 2.67 | 0.75 | 2.15 | 0.071 | −0.02 | 0.58 |
Gambling biases (GRCS) | |||||||
Gambling expectancies | 5.41 | 3.08 | 4.97 | 2.91 | 0.092 | −0.07 | 0.94 |
Illusion of control | 5.40 | 2.80 | 4.84 | 2.41 | 0.013 * | 0.12 | 0.99 |
Predictive control | 8.68 | 5.25 | 7.46 | 3.63 | 0.001 *** | 0.47 | 1.97 |
Inability to stop gambling | 6.34 | 3.59 | 6.01 | 2.99 | 0.261 | −0.25 | 0.91 |
Interpretive bias | 5.62 | 3.55 | 5.17 | 2.94 | 0.102 | −0.09 | 0.98 |
Total score | 31.4 | 16.4 | 28.5 | 13.9 | 0.019 * | 0.50 | 5.44 |
Buying (PBS) | |||||||
Loss of control | 3.08 | 3.76 | 2.55 | 3.21 | 0.031 * | 0.05 | 1.01 |
Excessive buying | 3.45 | 2.71 | 3.20 | 2.92 | 0.161 | −0.10 | 0.59 |
Total score | 6.53 | 5.89 | 5.75 | 5.57 | 0.034 * | 0.06 | 1.49 |
Materialism (MVS) | |||||||
Relevance | 9.17 | 2.78 | 9.16 | 3.18 | 0.981 | −0.45 | 0.46 |
Happiness | 10.03 | 3.26 | 9.63 | 3.42 | 0.090 | −0.06 | 0.87 |
Success | 11.96 | 4.51 | 10.59 | 4.28 | <0.001 *** | 0.72 | 2.00 |
Total score | 31.2 | 7.78 | 29.4 | 8.12 | <0.001 *** | 0.84 | 2.70 |
Variables | Girls (n = 103) | Pre-Post Changes | Boys (n = 79) | Pre-Post Changes | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | T2 | T-Test Paired | T1 | T2 | T-Test Paired | |||||||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | p | 95%CI MD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | p | 95%CI MD | |||
Gambling disorder severity (CAGI) | ||||||||||||||
Total score | 0.13 | 0.48 | 0.04 | 0.19 | 0.083 | −0.01 | 0.19 | 2.20 | 3.71 | 1.67 | 3.03 | 0.131 | −0.16 | 1.23 |
Gambling biases (GRCS) | ||||||||||||||
Gambling expectancies | 4.80 | 2.09 | 4.21 | 0.88 | 0.004 ** | 0.20 | 0.97 | 6.20 | 3.89 | 5.96 | 4.11 | 0.654 | −0.82 | 1.30 |
Illusion of control | 4.91 | 2.40 | 4.35 | 1.45 | 0.024 * | 0.07 | 1.05 | 6.03 | 3.16 | 5.48 | 3.16 | 0.172 | −0.24 | 1.33 |
Predictive control | 7.46 | 3.68 | 6.37 | 1.40 | 0.002 ** | 0.41 | 1.77 | 10.27 | 6.47 | 8.87 | 4.93 | 0.067 | −0.10 | 2.89 |
Inability stop gambling | 5.46 | 1.87 | 5.15 | 0.69 | 0.122 | −0.08 | 0.71 | 7.48 | 4.80 | 7.13 | 4.23 | 0.572 | −0.89 | 1.60 |
Interpretive bias | 4.70 | 2.28 | 4.25 | 1.15 | 0.037 * | 0.03 | 0.87 | 6.81 | 4.46 | 6.37 | 3.97 | 0.433 | −0.68 | 1.56 |
Total score | 27.3 | 11.0 | 24.3 | 4.65 | 0.005 ** | 0.90 | 5.04 | 36.8 | 20.4 | 33.8 | 19.2 | 0.250 | −2.13 | 8.05 |
Compulsive Buying (PBS) | ||||||||||||||
Loss of control | 3.59 | 3.70 | 3.03 | 3.37 | 0.063 | −0.03 | 1.16 | 2.41 | 3.74 | 1.92 | 2.88 | 0.236 | −0.32 | 1.28 |
Excessive buying | 4.26 | 2.54 | 4.17 | 3.02 | 0.724 | −0.40 | 0.58 | 2.39 | 2.56 | 1.94 | 2.23 | 0.067 | −0.03 | 0.94 |
Total score | 7.85 | 5.73 | 7.20 | 5.87 | 0.174 | −0.29 | 1.59 | 4.80 | 5.66 | 3.86 | 4.54 | 0.100 | −0.18 | 2.06 |
Materialism (MVS) | ||||||||||||||
Relevance | 9.08 | 2.72 | 9.24 | 3.17 | 0.578 | −0.75 | 0.42 | 9.29 | 2.87 | 9.06 | 3.22 | 0.538 | −0.51 | 0.96 |
Happiness | 9.77 | 3.23 | 9.09 | 3.51 | 0.023 * | 0.10 | 1.26 | 10.38 | 3.28 | 10.34 | 3.19 | 0.921 | −0.72 | 0.80 |
Success | 11.43 | 4.13 | 9.93 | 3.91 | 0.001 *** | 0.63 | 2.36 | 12.65 | 4.91 | 11.46 | 4.60 | 0.017 * | 0.22 | 2.16 |
Total score | 30.3 | 7.70 | 28.3 | 8.47 | 0.002 ** | 0.74 | 3.27 | 32.3 | 7.78 | 30.9 | 7.43 | 0.040 * | 0.07 | 2.84 |
Direct Effects | Variables | Coeff | SE | z | p | StdCoeff |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GD severity—T1 | Gender (male) | 2.0763 | 0.3649 | 5.69 | <0.001 *** | 0.3886 |
GD severity—T2 | GD severity—T1 | 0.4153 | 0.0516 | 8.04 | <0.001 *** | 0.5208 |
Cognitive biases—T1 | 0.0192 | 0.0083 | 2.33 | 0.020 * | 0.1477 | |
Materialism—T1 | 0.0324 | 0.0144 | 2.25 | 0.024 * | 0.1183 | |
Gender (male) | 0.5210 | 0.2541 | 2.05 | 0.040 * | 0.1223 | |
Cognitive biases—T2 | GD severity—T1 | 1.2724 | 0.3883 | 3.28 | 0.001 *** | 0.2460 |
Cognitive biases—T1 | 0.1606 | 0.0601 | 2.67 | 0.008 ** | 0.1902 | |
CB—T1 | 0.5418 | 0.1434 | 3.78 | <0.001 *** | 0.2333 | |
Gender (male) | 6.9858 | 1.9728 | 3.54 | <0.001 *** | 0.2528 | |
Cognitive biases—T1 | Gender (male) | 8.8473 | 2.3049 | 3.84 | <0.001 *** | 0.2705 |
Materialism—T1 | Age (years-old) | 0.4757 | 0.1859 | 2.56 | 0.010 ** | 0.1827 |
Materialism—T2 | Materialism—T1 | 0.6091 | 0.0574 | 10.61 | <0.001 *** | 0.5909 |
CB—T1 | 0.3307 | 0.0781 | 4.24 | <0.001 *** | 0.2451 | |
Gender (male) | 2.3640 | 0.8934 | 2.65 | 0.008 ** | 0.1472 | |
CB—T1 | Gender (male) | −3.7296 | 0.8037 | −4.64 | <0.001 *** | −0.3133 |
Age (years-old) | 0.4046 | 0.1385 | 2.92 | 0.003 ** | 0.2034 | |
CB—T2 | CB—T1 | 0.5310 | 0.0550 | 9.65 | <0.001 *** | 0.5613 |
Gender (male) | −1.9862 | 0.6477 | −3.07 | 0.002 ** | −0.1764 | |
Age (years-old) | 0.3317 | 0.1053 | 3.15 | 0.002 ** | 0.1763 | |
Indirect effects | Coeff | SE | z | p | StdCoeff | |
GD severity—T2 | Gender (male) | 1.0326 | 0.2018 | 5.12 | <0.001 *** | 0.2423 |
Age (years-old) | 0.0154 | 0.0091 | 1.69 | 0.091 | 0.0216 | |
Cognitive biases—T2 | Gender (male) | 2.0427 | 1.3183 | 1.55 | 0.121 | 0.0739 |
Age (years-old) | 0.2192 | 0.0949 | 2.31 | 0.021 * | 0.0475 | |
Materialism—T2 | Gender (male) | −1.2333 | 0.3942 | −3.13 | 0.002 ** | −0.0768 |
Age (years-old) | 0.4236 | 0.1387 | 3.05 | 0.002 ** | 0.1578 | |
CB—T2 | Gender (male) | −1.9806 | 0.4736 | −4.18 | <0.001 *** | −0.1759 |
Age (years-old) | 0.2148 | 0.0769 | 2.8 | 0.005 ** | 0.1142 | |
Total effects | Coeff | SE | z | p | StdCoeff | |
GD severity—Time1 | Gender (male) | 2.0763 | 0.3649 | 5.69 | <0.001 *** | 0.3886 |
GD severity—Time2 | GD severity—Time 1 | 0.4153 | 0.0516 | 8.04 | <0.001 *** | 0.5208 |
Cognitive biases—T1 | 0.0192 | 0.0083 | 2.33 | 0.020 * | 0.1477 | |
Materialism—T1 | 0.0324 | 0.0144 | 2.25 | 0.024 * | 0.1183 | |
Gender (male) | 1.5536 | 0.2916 | 5.33 | <0.001 *** | 0.3646 | |
Age (years-old) | 0.0154 | 0.0091 | 1.69 | 0.091 | 0.0216 | |
Cognitive biases—T2 | GD severity—T1 | 1.2724 | 0.3883 | 3.28 | 0.001 *** | 0.2460 |
Cognitive biases—T1 | 0.1606 | 0.0601 | 2.67 | 0.008 ** | 0.1902 | |
CB—T1 | 0.5418 | 0.1434 | 3.78 | <0.001 *** | 0.2333 | |
Gender (male) | 9.0285 | 1.9231 | 4.69 | <0.001 *** | 0.3267 | |
Age (years-old) | 0.2192 | 0.0949 | 2.31 | 0.021 * | 0.0475 | |
Cognitive biases—T1 | Gender (male) | 8.8473 | 2.3049 | 3.84 | <0.001 *** | 0.2705 |
Materialism—T1 | Age (years-old) | 0.4757 | 0.1859 | 2.56 | 0.010 ** | 0.1827 |
Materialism—T2 | Materialism—T1 | 0.6091 | 0.0574 | 10.61 | <0.001 *** | 0.5909 |
CB—T1 | 0.3307 | 0.0781 | 4.24 | <0.001 *** | 0.2451 | |
Gender (male) | 1.1307 | 0.8898 | 1.27 | 0.204 | 0.0704 | |
Age (years-old) | 0.4236 | 0.1387 | 3.05 | 0.002 ** | 0.1578 | |
CB—T1 | Gender (male) | −3.7296 | 0.8037 | −4.64 | <0.001 *** | −0.3133 |
Age (years-old) | 0.4046 | 0.1385 | 2.92 | 0.003 ** | 0.2034 | |
CB—T2 | CB—T1 | 0.5310 | 0.0550 | 9.65 | <0.001 *** | 0.5613 |
Gender (male) | −3.9668 | 0.7532 | −5.27 | <0.001 *** | −0.3523 | |
Age (years-old) | 0.5465 | 0.1264 | 4.32 | <0.001 *** | 0.2904 |
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Estévez, A.; Jauregui, P.; Momeñe, J.; Macia, L.; López-González, H.; Iruarrizaga, I.; Riquelme-Ortiz, C.; Granero, R.; Fernández-Aranda, F.; Vintró-Alcaraz, C.; et al. Longitudinal Changes in Gambling, Buying and Materialism in Adolescents: A Population-Based Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062811
Estévez A, Jauregui P, Momeñe J, Macia L, López-González H, Iruarrizaga I, Riquelme-Ortiz C, Granero R, Fernández-Aranda F, Vintró-Alcaraz C, et al. Longitudinal Changes in Gambling, Buying and Materialism in Adolescents: A Population-Based Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(6):2811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062811
Chicago/Turabian StyleEstévez, Ana, Paula Jauregui, Janire Momeñe, Laura Macia, Hibai López-González, Iciar Iruarrizaga, Conchi Riquelme-Ortiz, Roser Granero, Fernando Fernández-Aranda, Cristina Vintró-Alcaraz, and et al. 2021. "Longitudinal Changes in Gambling, Buying and Materialism in Adolescents: A Population-Based Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 6: 2811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062811