A Review on the Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Humans and Animals Reported in Malaysia from 2008–2018
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods for the Detection of T. gondii in Different Samples
3. Comparison of Serological Methods for the Detection of T. gondii Antibodies in Malaysia
4. Human Seroprevalence of Toxoplasmosis in Malaysia
4.1. Toxoplasmosis among Pregnant Women in Malaysia and a Link with Other Neighboring Countries
4.2. Toxoplasmosis among Human Patients Presenting with Various Disorders in Malaysia
4.3. Toxoplasmosis among Migrant Workers in Malaysia
4.4. Toxoplasmosis among Healthy Community Members in Malaysia
4.5. Toxoplasmosis among Schizophrenics in Malaysia
4.6. HIV/AIDS Patients and Rare Toxoplasmosis in Malaysia—A Case Report
5. Animal Seroprevalence of Toxoplasmosis and a Risk of Zoonotic Diseases in Malaysia
5.1. Domestic Animals
5.2. Wild Animals
5.3. Rodents and Other Species
5.4. Wild and Domestic Cat
6. Innovative Diagnostic Approach and Vaccine Development for T. gondii in Malaysia
7. Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of T. gondii in Malaysia
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AIDS | Acquired immune deficiency syndrome |
ELISA | Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
ESA | Excretory–secretory antigens |
GRA | Dense granule proteins |
H&E | Hematoxylin and eosin |
HIV | Human immunodeficiency virus |
IFAT | Indirect fluorescence antibody test |
IgG | Immunoglobulin G |
IgM | Immunoglobulin M |
LAT | Latex agglutination test |
LMAP | Loop-mediated amplification |
MAT | Modified agglutination test |
MRI | Magnetic resonance imaging |
PCR | Polymerase chain reaction |
PCR-RFLP | Polymerase chain reaction—restriction fragment length polymorphism |
ROP | Rophtry antigens |
SAG | Surface antigens |
T. gondii | Toxoplasma gondii |
qPCR | Quantitative-PCR |
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Host | Specimen | Sample Size | Test | Manufacturer | Interpretation of Results | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pregnant women | Blood | 281 | ELISA | BioRad, USA | IgG < 6 IU/mL negative, IgG < 6 IU/mL and 9 IU/mL equivocal, IgG > 9 IU/mL positive | [35] |
Pregnant women | Blood | 215 | ELISA | IgG & IgM-NovaLisa Dietzenbach, Germany | IgG, IgM and Avidity High avidity past infection (4–5 months). Low avidity, recently acquired (4–5 month) | [36] |
Patients with disorder | Blood | 102 | ELISA | Bio-Rad, USA | IgG < 0.80 negative, IgG ˃1.0 positive Avidity; <20% acute | [37] |
Patients with disorder | Blood | 129 | IFAT | na | IgG > 51 IU/mL positive IgM > 51 IU/mL positive | [5] |
Renal patient | Blood | 247 | ELISA | IgG-Trinity Biotech, New York, NY and IgM-Trinity Biotech, New York, NY) | IgG > 51 IU/mL positive IgM > 51 IU/mL positive Avidity; <40% latent | [38] |
Healthy community members | Blood | 495 | ELISA | Trinity Biotech, New York, NY | IgG > 51 IU/mL positive IgM > 51 IU/mL positive Avidity; <40% latent | [39] |
Healthy community members | Blood and stool | 345 | ELISA | Trinity Biotech, USA | IgG and IgM | [40] |
Migrant workers | Blood Venous/plain | 484 | Trinity Biotech CaptiaTM, New York, USA | IgG ≥ 1.23, positive IgM ≥ 1.23, positive Avidity’ ˃40% latent and ≤40% acute | [41] | |
Migrant workers | Blood | Migrants, 501 Control 198 | IFAT and ELISA (IgM) | na | 1:64 significant titers. Positive samples diluted two-fold, end point values. IgM dilution 1:100 | [42] |
Schizophrenic | Blood | Schizophrenic (88) Control (88) | ELISA | RADIM, Italy | na | [43] |
Schizophrenic | Blood | cases (101) control (55) | ELISA and qPCR | IBL company, Hamburg Germany | IgG and IgM positive more than IU/mL and 11 IU/mL | [44] |
HIV patient | Blood | 1 | ELISA | na | IgG > 51 IU/mL as positive | [45] |
Veterinary health professionals & students | Blood | 312 | ELISA | IgG-NovaLisa, Dietzenbach, Germany | ELISA-I, II and III Avidity >40%, chronic, <40% acute. Avidity of <15% (low avidity), acute primary infection Avidity between 15% and 30% (borderline) | [46] |
Cattle | Blood | 116 | IFAT | na | 1:20 | [47] |
Domestic animals | Blood | Cat (55), dog (135), goats (200) cattle (126) Pigs (100) | IFAT | na | na | [48] |
Rats | Blood | 526 | IFAT | na | IgG ≥ 1.64 IgM ≥ 1.4 | [49] |
Country | Year | G | Design | Subject | Sample Size | S | Test | Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Malaysia | 2014 | Female | Cross-sectional | Pregnant women | 281 | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 35.2%, IgM/IgG: 1.8%, IgG avidity: high and low. The Toxoplasma antibody was confirmed through IgG avidity index, and it was found to be accurate. | [35] |
Malaysia and Myanmar | 2014 | Female | Cross-sectional | Pregnant women | 219 Malaysia, 215 Myanmar | Sera | ELISA | Malaysia, IgG: 39.7%, IgG and IgM: 2.7%. Myanmar, IgG: 30.2%, IgG and IgM: 0.5%. Malaysian pregnant women were more prone to T. gondii infection in the age group 30 years and above. Lack of awareness was also associated with the infection. | [36] |
Thailand and Myanmar border | 2017 | Both | Cross-sectional | Pregnant women/ Refugee | 200 | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 31.7%, IgM: 1.5%, IgG avidity: high. The infection is more prevalent in people aged 35 years and above. Similarly, being Muslim was associated with a higher risk of infection. | [57] |
Thailand | 2011 | Female | Cross-sectional | Pregnant women | 640 | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 21.6%, IgM and IgG: 6.7%, IgG avidity: high. Contact with cats and untreated water are the confirmed risk factors. | [56] |
Thailand | 2014 | Female | Cross-sectional | Pregnant women | 760 | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 22.0%, IgM: 3.0% IgG avidity: high. Pregnant women 26 years and above working as laborers and untreated water were identified as risk factors. | [55] |
Country | Year | G | Design | Subject | Sample Size | S | Test | Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Malaysia | 2010 | Both | Cross-sectional | Patients with disorders | 129 | Sera | ELISA | IgM: 0.8%, IgG: 38.8%, IgM and IgG: 2.3%. Highest seroprevalence in the age group 20–41 years old. Malay has the highest IgG positivity (32.0%) and the least is among Indians (1.0%). The younger population are at risk of infection. | [5] |
Malaysia | 2011 | Both | Cases | Renal patients | 247 | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 31.6%. High prevalence of latent toxoplasmosis in renal patients with older people at high risk. | [56] |
Malaysia | 2016 | Both | Cross-sectional | Patients with disorders | 102 cases | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 44.1%, IgM: 1.0%. The highest was recorded among patients screened for congenital toxoplasmosis (41.7%) and in children less than one-month-old (37.8%). | [37] |
Country | Year | G | Design | Subject | Sample Size | S | Test | Finding | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Malaysia | 2008 | Male | Cross-sectional | Foreigners/Migrant workers | 501 Migrants, 198 local Malaysians, 90 Police and Immigration | Sera | IFAT | Migrants—IgG: 34.1%, IgM: 5.2%; Locals—IgG: 44.9%, IgM: 8.6%. All nationalities were seropositive with T. gondii antibodies. Seroprevalence among illegal Indonesian workers was the highest, 54.4%, compared to that among Nepalese workers, 46.2%. Infection not imported, those infected got it at the plantation camp. | [42] |
Malaysia | 2017 | Both | Cross-sectional | Migrant workers | 484 | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 52.9%, IgM: 0.8%, IgG and IgM: 3.8%, IgG avidity: high. The most common factor associated with the prevalence of the infection is age class. Workers older than 45 years and above were found to be more prone to the infection. Second is the migrant countries of origin, which was also identified as a risk factor. | [41] |
Country | Year | G | Design | Subject | Sample Size | S | Test | Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Malaysia | 2011 | Both | Cross-sectional | Orang Asli/Indigenous | 495 | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 31.0%, IgM: 1.8%, IgG and IgM: 4.2%, IgG avidity: low. Seroprevalence higher among 12 years and above. Close contact with cats and untreated water as risk factors. | [39] |
Malaysia | 2014 | Both | Cross-sectional | Pangkor Island | 345 individuals | Stool and Sera | Micros and ELISA | Trichuris trichiura: 5.3%. IgG and IgM: 59.7%. Seroprevalence was 59.7% with the infection being higher in children, in females, and also in Malays compared to Indians and Chinese. | [40] |
Malaysia | 2015 | Both | Cross-sectional | Veterinary personnel and pet owners | 312 people: Veterinarian Technicians Students | Sera | ELISA | IgG: 18.3%, IgM: 1.0%, IgG and IgM: 0.7%, IgG avidity: low, but no clinical symptoms. Veterinarians: 18.4%, technicians: 33.3%, students: 14.9%, and pet owners: 31.4%. Technicians had the highest risk and vulnerability to the infection. Working duration, age group (above 30 years), and gardening were risk factors. Indians were the highest infected 29.0%. | [46] |
Country | Year | G | Design | Subject | Sample Size | S | Test | Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Malaysia | 2015 | Both | Case control | Schizophrenic | 101 Schizophrenic patients 55 control | Sera | ELISA and qPCR | Schizophrenic—IgG: 51.5%, IgM: 3.9% DNA: 32.1%; Control—IgG: 18.2%, IgM: 0%, DNA: 3.6%. The study confirmed strong association between T. gondii and schizophrenia. | [44] |
Malaysia | 2013 | Both | Case-control | Hospital-based | 88 Schizophrenic 88 Control | Sera | ELISA | Schizophrenic—IgG: 51.0%, IgM: 1.1%; Control—IgG: 30.7%, IgM: 1.1%. Beef and pork consumption, and risky cats were significantly associated with the infection. There is an association between T. gondii and schizophrenia. | [43] |
Country | Genotype | Host | Sample Used for Genotyping | Number of T. gondii Isolates | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indonesia | Non clonal | Chicken | Bioassay in mice | 1 | [104] |
Vietnam | Non clonal | Chicken | Bioassay in mice | 1 | [104,105] |
Myanmar | type I | Bats | Direct from organs | 19 | [87] |
Malaysia | type I and II | Ducks | Bioassay in mice | 4 | [106] |
Malaysia | type I | Wild Boars | Bioassay in mice | 11 | [98] |
Thailand | type I, III, II or III and recombinant | domestic cat | Direct from feces | 13 | [94] |
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Nasiru Wana, M.; Mohd Moklas, M.A.; Watanabe, M.; Nordin, N.; Zasmy Unyah, N.; Alhassan Abdullahi, S.; Ahmad Issa Alapid, A.; Mustapha, T.; Basir, R.; Abd. Majid, R. A Review on the Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Humans and Animals Reported in Malaysia from 2008–2018. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 4809. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134809
Nasiru Wana M, Mohd Moklas MA, Watanabe M, Nordin N, Zasmy Unyah N, Alhassan Abdullahi S, Ahmad Issa Alapid A, Mustapha T, Basir R, Abd. Majid R. A Review on the Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Humans and Animals Reported in Malaysia from 2008–2018. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(13):4809. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134809
Chicago/Turabian StyleNasiru Wana, Mohammed, Mohamad Aris Mohd Moklas, Malaika Watanabe, Norshariza Nordin, Ngah Zasmy Unyah, Sharif Alhassan Abdullahi, Ashraf Ahmad Issa Alapid, Tijjani Mustapha, Rusliza Basir, and Roslaini Abd. Majid. 2020. "A Review on the Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Humans and Animals Reported in Malaysia from 2008–2018" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 13: 4809. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134809