Skip to Content
MDPIMDPI

Advanced

PharmaceuticalsPharmaceuticals
PDF
  • Review
  • Open Access

2 November 2025

16 Pages

Antidiabetic Properties of the Tropical Tree Schinus molle L. (pirul): A Comprehensive Review

and
1
Laboratorio de Plantas Vasculares, Departamento de Biología Comparada, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
2
Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Nefrológicas, Hospital de Especialidades “Dr. Bernardo Sepúlveda Gutiérrez”, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Cuauhtémoc, Ciudad de México 06720, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pharmaceuticals2025, 18(11), 1661;https://doi.org/10.3390/ph18111661
This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Products: Basic, Therapeutic, and Computational Approaches in Chronic and Infectious Diseases
Version Notes
Order Reprints

Abstract

The need for new medications to treat diabetes mellitus (DM) is a global health concern due to the cost and impact on patients and their families, health systems, and society. Recent approaches in drug development have focused on multitarget therapy for DM, considering its multifactorial and complex pathophysiology. The present work contributes to the review of the plant species Schinus molle L. (pirul), a tropical tree native to South America but now widespread worldwide, which has demonstrated anticancer, analgesic, antibacterial, and insecticidal properties. According to traditional uses, pirul has been employed as a food condiment, in the preparation of beverages and chewing gums, and in the treatment of DM. The antidiabetic effects of pirul appear to act through several mechanisms involved in DM. The methanolic extract of S. molle fruits collected in Tunisia exhibited a dose-dependent inhibition on both α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes (77.49% and 86.45%, respectively). A dose-dependent anti-inflammatory effect was also observed at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 h, in the carrageenan-induced rats’ paw edema model. Furthermore, in both the H2O2 and the superoxide radical assays, the pirul extract demonstrated moderate antioxidant activity (IC50 = 0.22 mg/mL). Isomasticadienonic acid and Masazino-flavanone, the major components of active fractions and extracts of S. molle represent promising antidiabetic agents. Although pirul appears to be safe in in vivo acute and subchronic administrations, toxicological studies and clinical trials in individuals with DM are still pending.

1. Introduction

DM is a chronic disease that can be considered one of the most common and fastest-growing worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), its prevalence has been increasing alarmingly, as the number of persons living with DM has quadrupled over a 30-year period, rising from 200 million in 1990 to 830 million in 2022 [1]. The absolute global economic burden will increase from USD 1.3 trillion in 2015 to USD 2.2 trillion in the baseline scenario and to USD 2.1 trillion in the target scenarios for 2030. This represents an increased cost as a percentage of global GDP from 1.8% in 2015 to a maximum of 2.2% for the year 2030. Therefore, the economic burden of DM is considerable for patients and their families, for health systems, and for societies as a whole. The costs associated with diabetes are substantial and include not only medical expenses but also indirect costs related to disability, premature death, and loss of productivity [2]. As a consequence, the management of DM requires immediate actions and alternatives that positively impact prevention and pharmacological treatments for these to be more effective and less expensive. Recent research considers a comprehensive approach in the treatment of DM, taking into account its multifactorial and complex pathophysiology. Thus, plant extracts and their metabolites exhibited numerous physiological activities that could be involved in different pathways of the disease, offering a potential alternative therapy for DM [3]; among these activities are potent antioxidants, anti-inflammatories, hypoglycemics, hepatoprotectors, cardiovascular protectors, and nephroprotectors [4,5,6,7]. Therefore, the need to study plants that can exhibit possible multitarget functions useful in the treatment of DM appears essential. In this review, we present S. molle, a tropical tree native to South America but currently broadly distributed worldwide. Although there are some reports in traditional medicine on its use for the treatment of DM [8], its experimental antidiabetic properties have scarcely been considered. Thus, this review aims to be a contribution to the area of research of natural products as potential drugs that could be applicable in the clinical treatment of DM in the near future.

2. Overview of S. molle

2.1. Botanical Description and Geographical Distribution

S. molle is a tree native to South America, Peru, northern Chile, and from southern Brazil to northeastern Argentina that belongs to the botanical family Anacardiaceae. It has been introduced in several regions of North America, Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the genus Schinus consists of about 40 species, all endemic to South America [9]. S. molle is known by different common names; in Mexico, it is known as piru, pirúl or pirul, tree of Peru, pirwi, tsactumi, tzactumi, tzantuni, xasa, xaza, peloncuáhuitl, yaga-cica, and yaga-lache [10]. In Brazil, it is called aroeira, aroeira-salsa, periquita, anacauíta or anacahuita, and molho [11]. In some other regions, it is also known as aguaribay, aguaribay pepper, aguacibay, molle, Bolivian molle, pimentero, Peruvian pepper, paprika, wood pepper, poivrier d’america, quebracho Colorado, and terebinto [12].
S. molle is a tree that can reach up to 10 m in height and is recognized by its thin, hanging branches, with leaves 15–30 cm in length divided into 17–35 lanceolate leaflets, each 1.5–5 cm in length, 2–10 mm in width, with the entire margin or sometimes serrulate, without trichomes, or very rarely, with few trichomes, flowers in clusters (September–March), branched, hanging, up to 30 cm in length, and the fruits more or less spherical, 5–7 mm in diameter [12,13] (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Detail of the tropical tree S. molle: (A) habit; (B) leaves; (C) cortex; (D) flower, and (E) dried seeds. Photos: Rosa María Fonseca.
Barkley observed, in the 1950s [12], that the pirul grew in many temperate regions of the world because it was distributed by the Spanish colonialists since the 16th century, as an ornamental plant and producer of fruits with a flavor similar to that of pepper. The pirul is now part of the landscape of many places in the world, and, in some countries like Mexico, due to its great abundance, it could appear to be native. Among the multiple applications of this species, its reforestation and ecological restoration exhibited notable results due to its resistance to various environmental factors [14].

2.2. Uses and Biological Properties of Pirul

From pre-Columbian times, in South America, a drink called chicha has been prepared with the fruits of S. molle containing beneficial probiotics [15,16]. The dry fruits have been used as a condiment in some countries to adulterate black pepper due to their similar flavor, although their use is becoming less common [17]. The resin has been used as a base for chewing gum in order to strengthen the gums. Dyes are also obtained from the leaf bark, stem, bark, and root [17,18].
The pirul is linked to various practices of the native cultures of Mexico, such as the Mixe, the Zapotec, and the Totonaca, which employed its branches and leaves in purification rituals denominated as “cleasings” (limpias), to remove “the bad air”, “the evil eye” and the “scare” (espanto); for this reason, in numerous states of the country, the branches and leaves of the pirul are sold in popular marketplaces [19]. In Inca culture, the resin of S. molle was employed for embalming corpses [20].
One of the most widespread traditional uses of the pirul is as a repellent. In rural communities in South America and Mexico, residents collect the fruits of the pirul to repel flies and mosquitoes in their homes, on their livestock, and on their crops [21]. The effectiveness of essential oils from pirul leaves and fruits has also been reported for the control of disease transmission vectors such as chikungunya and Zika [22,23], as well as in the control of pests such as mites in bee hives [24] and in goats [25]. The essential oil and hexanic extracts of S. molle showed potential as a repellent for the oriental cockroach (Blata orientalis) [26]. The insecticidal activity of the essential oil of the pirul by contact showed acceptable results in the exposure method of the adults of Sitophilus oryzae; thus, the fruits of S. molle are more active against this species of beetle than the essential oil of S. terebinthifolius. The majority of the compounds present in the essential oil of the leaves and fruits of S. molle are β-Pinene (10.36–5.44%), γ-Terpinene (12.01–8.15%), Limonene (22.94–18.49%), 10-epi-elemol (7.64–8.03%), γ-Eudesmol (5.17–4.09%), and Longifolene (7.67–8.48%). Also detected was the presence of the following compounds that are only present in the essential oils of the species S. molle and absent in the species S. terebinthifolius: γ-Muurolene, γ-Gurjunene, γ-Cadinene, 10-epi-elemol, Guaiol, and α-Acorenol [27]. The effectiveness of an ointment containing S. molle essential oil was observed in cattle with infected wounds [28]. Currently, the essential oils of the pirul are employed as a cosmetic ingredient with anti-pollution, anti-aging, and anti-wrinkle properties [29].
Given its traditional use against toothache, chipped teeth, and wound healing, an experimental study was carried out, where the result shows that the resin of S. molle demonstrated a cariostatic effect. On the other hand, the analgesic effect of the dichloromethane extract of the leaves of the pirul has been confirmed for relieving rheumatism and muscle pain [30].
Some evaluations concerning the cytotoxicity activities of the essential oils of S. molle were carried out on hepatocellular, colon, and breast carcinoma cell lines. Fruit oil showed the greatest potency against the colon and hepatocellular cell lines, while flower oil exhibited the most potent activity against breast-carcinoma cell lines. Therefore, the specific activities on every different cell line suggested the future investigation of S. molle in different types of cancer [31].
The wood of S. molle has an acceptable paper pulp quality index [32]. The study of wood chemistry proposes its possible use for the kraft pulp process and as an excellent candidate for paper pulp [33,34]. As fuel the wood of the pirul has been classified as adequate due to its calorific value, which is near that of the wood of some pines and oaks [34].
However, pirul has been considered as an invasive species [19,35] and as a harmful plant in Africa (Noxious Weed), in that it competes with native species [36]. Later studies on the ecological role of S. molle revealed its positive interaction with a number of native animal species, as well as the advantage of the pirul for its self-reproduction, without human intervention, which has been favored by its cultural importance [19].

4. Discussion

DM is a chronic metabolic disease that has been recognized as a global epidemic, characterized by prolonged hyperglycemia that leads to several severe lengthy health complications [65]. Despite the availability of approved drugs for its treatment, there is still no cure for DM. Therefore, research into natural products has become particularly relevant for the discovery of novel and effective drugs due to their multicomponent, multitargeted, and fewer side effects, showing that these could be useful in the treatment of DM [66]. One of the various antidiabetic mechanisms that has gained attention in recent years is the inhibition of enzymes α-amylase and α-glucosidase to manage the blood glucose levels. Both α-glucosidase and α-amylase enzyme inhibitors can suppress peaks of postprandial glucose. α-glucosidase breaks down starch and disaccharides, while α-amylase breaks internal α-1, 4-glycosidic linkages of starch into glucose and maltose. Thus, the antidiabetic effect of these enzymes lies in delaying glucose absorption through inhibition of these enzymes in the digestive organs, mainly in the small intestine [67]. In the present review, a dose-dependent inhibitory activity on both enzymes was highlighted for the methanolic extract of S. molle fruits originating from Tunisia. However, different results were observed in extracts from other parts of the plant and from samples collected in other countries, where inhibition on the α-glucosidase enzyme was generally more potent than that of α-amylase (Table 1). These differences may relate to the chemical composition of the samples. In particular, the Tunisian sample contained Masazino-flavanone as its major compound, whereas this compound was absent in other samples. Therefore, the dual inhibitory enzymatic activity observed may be attributed to the presence of Masazino-flavanone, which is consistent with reports describing the potent inhibitory activity on glucosidase enzymes exhibited by flavanones, where the structural B-ring is determinant [68].
Other mechanisms recognized as key in the pathogenesis of DM and prediabetes include oxidative stress and inflammation. Both are physiological processes with protective functions. Oxidative stress through reactive oxygen species (ROS) participates in the removal of pathogens and the signals of tissue repair. Inflammation reacts to injury or infection by isolation and elimination of the damage caused and also initiates the healing process [69]. However, an imbalance between free radical production and the antioxidant system leads to a reduction in peripheral insulin sensitivity and favors the development of DM through multiple molecular pathways, altering functional and structural molecules, preceding tissue injury and dysfunction. The inflammation response, initiated by tissue damage, induces the release of cytokines and chemokines that promote intracellular signaling pathways, as kinases and transcription factors. These mechanisms contribute to both macrovascular and microvascular complications associated with poor glycemic control [70,71]. In this context, we reviewed the antioxidant and the anti-inflammatory properties of S. molle from samples deriving from different parts of the plant, as well as from samples deriving originally from different countries. Various extracts and fractions of S. molle exhibited significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in both in vitro and in vivo assays, particularly those obtained from fruits and seeds (Table 1). The main compound detected in these active extracts and fractions was Masazino-flavanone from a sample collected in Tunisia [40]. Therefore, the antidiabetic effect exhibited by the methanolic extract of the fruits of S. molle with a majority composition of Masazino-flavanone could be considered integral in that they are due to the inhibitory enzymatic properties, as well as to the antioxidant and the anti-inflammatory properties exhibited and reviewed in this present contribution. Furthermore, recent studies have reported cardiopreventive effects of the Masazino-flavanone in in vivo assays [72], which is especially relevant since cardiovascular diseases represent one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in persons living with DM [73]. Thus, in the present review, the samples of the fruits from Tunisia stand out from the rest for their chemical profile and biological efficacy. Another interesting sample, because of its anti-inflammatory effects, was the sample from South Africa, with a principal content of Isomasticadienonic acid [49]. This compound has been identified as a selective inhibitor of the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1, which converts inactive cortisone into active cortisol. This enzymatic inhibition contributes to antidiabetic activity by regulating glucose and fatty acid metabolism [74].
Regarding antioxidant properties, and in addition to the previous comments, in the present contribution, samples of S. molle from different countries (Table 1) were reviewed. The main chemicals with antioxidant activities were essential oils, principally comprising α and β-Phellandrene. However, their overall antioxidant activity was relatively low, which is consistent with published reports that mention that monoterpenes, even in high amounts, showed low or almost ineffective activity in some antioxidant assays, such as DPPH and ABTS [75].
Concerning the toxicological effects of pirul, the literature reviewed primarily addresses acute effects resulting from ingestion or contact. Although some reversible skin irritation and alterations in the motor system were observed in the experimental animals, extracts from pirul could be considered safe. Nevertheless, the doses tested are not homogeneous among reports, and the chemical composition of some of them is not defined. Therefore, the toxicological profile of S. molle still requires further experimental evidence.
Other species belonging to the same botanical family, Anacardiaceae, have also demonstrated antidiabetic properties. One of them is the species Pistacia lentiscus, a species that thrives in the Mediterranean region and has exhibited antioxidant, antiatherogenic, anticancer, and antibacterial properties. In traditional medicine, it has been used in the treatment of DM. Recent studies have revealed its antidiabetic properties through different mechanisms, such as the inhibition of crucial gastrointestinal enzymes involved in carbohydrate digestion and absorption (α-amylase, α-glucosidase); the regulation of glucocorticoid metabolism by inhibiting pancreatic lipase enzymes; hypoglycemic activity by substantially reducing blood glucose levels through oral administration of 50 mg/kg and 125 mg/kg of ethanolic extract of leaves and fruits in in vivo experiments; and hypolipidemic effects in animal models and human subjects. However, the limitation of this species so far is that the compounds responsible for its antidiabetic properties have not yet been identified [76]. Another relevant member of the Anacardiaceae family with antidiabetic properties is mango (Mangifera indica). Recent clinical studies indicate that daily mango intake for 4 weeks increased insulin sensitivity and also contributed to the reduction in the amount of insulin required to maintain glucose in people with chronic low-grade inflammation. These effects are likely linked to modifications in cellular redox activities rather than to the inflammatory process [77]. Similar to Pistacia lentiscus, the bioactive compounds responsible for these effects remain unidentified. Therefore, when comparing these two species with pirul, all of them belonging to Anacardiaceae, although these species show evidence of antidiabetic properties in vivo, the active compounds have not yet been elucidated. In the case of pirul, additional studies such as those conducted on Pistacia lentiscus and mango to evaluate its glucose-lowering potential appear to be a priority.
Finally, it is interesting to note the clear variations in chemical composition that occur in the samples of S. molle species that thrive in different countries around the world (Table 1). This observation is also consistent with previous publications [56] that mention that the main chemical components of S. molle may differ due to the specific climatic and soil conditions of the region of origin, which could be favoring intraspecific differences. Furthermore, some authors previously proposed the existence of different chemotypes of S. molle that must be confirmed by pending studies involving its populations and individuals [78].
Therefore, this review is distinguished by its original selection of the object of study, as the most well-known medicinal uses of the pirul do not relate to diabetes mellitus (DM). Furthermore, the pirul is not considered edible per se, but its accessibility as a resource makes it attractive for use. Additionally, this contribution is distinguished by its analysis of the potential active chemical compounds in DM and their geographical availability, which, to our knowledge, is being reported for the first time.

5. Future Directions

Natural products and their derivatives have made remarkable contributions to the field of medicine, offering a wide array of new pharmacological entities for the treatment of diverse diseases. Although several specific medications exist for the management of DM, traditional medicine remains the first-line therapeutic approach in many marginalized and rural communities worldwide, where the use of medicinal plants is especially prevalent. Furthermore, the WHO recognizes traditional medicine not only for its contribution to health but also to the well-being, people-centered health care, and universal health coverage.
The case of S. molle is interesting not only for the multitarget experimental properties exhibited so far in the literature reviewed but also for its advantages as a potential raw material for drug development. These advantages include its wide worldwide distribution and easy accessibility in regions where it naturally grows. In the present review, the enzyme inhibition, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of S. molle were identified as potentially useful in the management of DM. Nevertheless, future studies should also address other key therapeutic targets to DM, such as hypoglycemic activity, which, to the best of our knowledge, has not yet been investigated. Research in this direction could provide more precise and conclusive evidence regarding the therapeutic use of pirul in DM. Additionally, studies exploring insulin resistance and gut microbiota modulation represent other research directions that have also been demonstrated to be crucial in the pathogenesis of DM.
Another important yet insufficiently explored aspect concerns the toxicological profile of S. molle. Although some preliminary toxicological studies have been conducted, as discussed in this review, neither the active nor the potentially toxic compounds have been fully characterized, and therapeutic dosage ranges remain undefined. To fill these gaps, exhaustive identification of active compounds should be performed using advanced spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques necessary for their complete identification, as well as crystallography studies when applicable. Recent studies demonstrated that HPLC-DAD-ESI-QTOF-MS analysis would be very effective for the determination of phenolics and other polar compounds. Isomasticadienonic acid and Masazino-flavanone are two compounds indicated in the present review as related to the antidiabetic properties of pirul, but the identification of active compounds in the rest of the fractions or polar extracts is still pending. Furthermore, future research should focus on the standardization of therapeutic doses of S. molle and performance of in vivo studies to validate efficacy. A complete pharmacokinetic profile that evaluates the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of pirul will be essential to support potential clinical studies and future therapeutic applications.
As can be seen so far, one of the most relevant contributions of this review is precisely to draw attention to the potential therapeutic effects of pirul for the treatment of DM. To date, experimental evidence is still limited, making S. molle a strong candidate for more rigorous research in the field of natural product-based drug discovery.

6. Conclusions

S. molle has exhibited properties as an enzyme inhibitor of α-glucosidase and α-amylase, as well as an anti-inflammatory and an antioxidant, which allow it to be considered as a future alternative in the treatment of DM, with the advantage of possessing multitarget antidiabetic actions. However, this promising profile is tempered by significant limitations in the scientific record. Critically, negative results have also been reported, with some studies finding that specific aqueous and methanolic extracts showed no activity in certain in vitro models. This underscores that the bioactivity is highly dependent on factors such as the plant’s geographical origin, the specific plant part used, the extraction solvent, and the biological assay employed. Nonetheless, particularly promising is the identification of specific compounds, such as Isomasticadienonic acid, with a defined mechanism of action (e.g., 11β-HSD1 inhibition), alongside robust in vitro evidence for α-glucosidase inhibition. Another auspicious active compound is Masazino-flavanone, which, in addition to the in vivo and in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, has cardiopreventive properties by reducing the high-cardiac-risk parameters of myocardial infarction. Therefore, to date, experimental evidence places S. molle as a potential candidate to be part of the DM arsenal in the future. An immediate and rigorous toxicological profile and clinical trials in persons with DM are still pending.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.H.-R.; investigation, R.M.F. and M.H.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, R.M.F. and M.H.-R.; writing—review and editing, R.M.F. and M.H.-R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank M. in B. by María Eugenia Muñiz Díaz de León, Plant Workshop I and II, Department of Comparative Biology, Faculty of Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico, UNAM, Mexico, for the facilities provided for taking photographs.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. World Health Organization. Diabetes. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes (accessed on 10 October 2025).
  2. Bommer, C.; Sagalova, V.; Heesemann, E.; Manne-Goehler, J.; Atun, R.; Bärnighausen, T.; Davies, J.; Vollmer, S. Global Economic Burden of Diabetes in Adults: Projections From 2015 to 2030. Diabetes Care 2018, 41, 963–970. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  3. Serina, J.J.C.; Castilho, P.C.M.F. Using polyphenols as a relevant therapy to diabetes and its complications, a review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2022, 62, 8355–8387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  4. Kaur, R.; Sood, A.; Lang, D.K.; Arora, R.; Kumar, N.; Diwan, V.; Saini, B. Natural Products as Sources of Multitarget Compounds: Advances in the Development of Ferulic Acid as Multitarget Therapeutic. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2022, 22, 347–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  5. Escandón-Rivera, S.M.; Mata, R.; Andrade-Cetto, A. Molecules Isolated from Mexican Hypoglycemic Plants: A Review. Molecules 2020, 25, 4145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  6. Shah, S.M.A.; Akram, M.; Riaz, M.; Munir, N.; Rasool, G. Cardioprotective Potential of Plant-Derived Molecules: A Scientific and Medicinal Approach. Dose Response 2019, 17, 1559325819852243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  7. Castañeda, R.; Cáceres, A.; Cruz, S.M.; Aceituno, J.A.; Marroquín, E.S.; Barrios Sosa, A.C.; Strangman, W.K.; Williamson, R.T. Nephroprotective plant species used in traditional Mayan Medicine for renal-associated diseases. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2023, 301, 115755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  8. Bussmann, R.W.; Glenn, A. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments–plants used for the treatment of diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J. Med. Plant Res. 2011, 5, 6916–6930. [Google Scholar]
  9. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available online: https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:71044-1/general-information (accessed on 10 October 2025).
  10. Atlas de las Plantas de la Medicina Tradicional Mexicana. Biblioteca Digital de la Medicina Tradicional Mexicana, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Pirul. Available online: http://www.medicinatradicionalmexicana.unam.mx/apmtm/termino.php?l=3&t=pirul (accessed on 10 October 2025).
  11. Machado, C.D.; Ramanb, V.; Junaid, U.; Rehmanb, J.U.; Maiac, B.H.L.N.S.; Meneghettic, E.K.; Almeidaa, V.P.; Silva, R.Z.; Faragoa, P.V.; Khanb, I.A.; et al. Schinus molle: Anatomy of leaves and stems, chemical composition and insecticidal activities of volatile oil against bed bug (Cimex lectularius). Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2018, 29, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  12. Barkley, F.A. A study of Schinus L. Brittonia 1957, 5, 160–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  13. World Flora Online. Available online: https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000435157 (accessed on 10 October 2025).
  14. Mompha, L.M.M.; Palacios, C.R.R.; de Nova Vázquez, J.A.; Alvarado, F.; Mireles, L.E.M.; Gallardo, R.B. Relationship between tree cover and tree diversity in urban parks in a semiarid city in Mexico. ARPHA Prepr. 2025, 6, e167706. [Google Scholar]
  15. Goldstein, D.J.; Coleman, R.C. Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae) Chicha production in the Central Andes. Econ. Bot. 2004, 58, 523–529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  16. Rodríguez Carrasco, J.; García-Godos, A.P. Capacidad probiótica de bacterias lácticas aisladas de chicha de molle. Rev. Soc. Quím. Perú 2017, 83, 391–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  17. Kramer, F.L. The pepper tree, Schinus molle L. Econ. Bot. 1957, 11, 322–326. [Google Scholar]
  18. Antúnez de Mayolo, K.K. Peruvian natural dye plants. Econ. Bot. 1989, 43, 181–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  19. Ramírez-Albores, J.E.; Richardson, D.M.M.; Stefenon, V.M.; Bizama, G.A.; Pérez-Suárez, M.; Badano, E.I. A global assessment of the potential distribution of naturalized and planted populations of the ornamental alien tree Schinus molle. NeoBiota 2021, 68, 105–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  20. Murray, P.; Murray, G. Phytochemistry, traditional uses and bioactivity of the medicinal plant Schinus areira L. (Anacardiaceae): A review. Nat. Prod. J. 2017, 7, 97–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  21. Villavicencio-Nieto, M.A.; Pérez-Escandón, B.E.; Gordillo-Martínez, A.J. Plantas tradicionalmente usadas como plaguicidas en el estado de Hidalgo, México. Polibotánica 2010, 30, 193–238. [Google Scholar]
  22. Huerta, A.; Chiffelle, I.; Puga, K.; Azúa, F.; Araya, J.E. Toxicity and repellence of aqueous and ethanolic extracts from Schinus molle on elm leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola. Crop Prot. 2010, 29, 1118–1123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  23. Islam, J.; Zaman, K.; Duarah, S.; Raju, P.S.; Chattopadhyay, P. Mosquito repellents: An insight into the chronological perspectives and novel discoveries. Acta Trop. 2017, 167, 216–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  24. Guala, M.S.; Lapissonde, M.O.; Elder, H.V.; Pérez, G.A. Efecto acaricida del aceite esencial de aguaribay (Schinus molle L.) y sus fracciones en colmenares de abejas (Apis mellifera) en relación con la composición química. Inf. Tecnol. 2014, 25, 151–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  25. Torres, F.C.; Machado Lucas, A.; Sardá-Ribeiro, V.L.; Martins, J.R.; von Poser, G.; Guala, M.S.; Elder, H.V.; Cassel, E. Influence of essential oil fractionation by vacuum distillation on acaricidal activity against the cattle tick. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 2012, 55, 613–621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  26. Deveci, O.; Sukan, A.; Tuzun, N.; Hames Kocabas, E.E. Chemical composition, repellent and antimicrobial activity of Schinus molle L. J. Med. Plants Res. 2010, 4, 2211–2216. [Google Scholar]
  27. Belhoussaine, O.; El Kourchi, C.; Harhar, H.; Bouyahya, A.; El Yadini, A.; Fozia, F.; Alotaibi, A.; Ullah, R.; Tabyaoui, M. Chemical composition, antioxidant, insecticidal activity, and comparative analysis of essential oils of leaves and fruits of Schinus molle and Schinus terebinthifolius. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2022, 2022, 4288890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  28. Alba González, A.; Bonilla Rivera, P.; Arroyo Acevedo, J. Actividad cicatrizante de una pomada con aceite esencial de Schinus molle L. “molle” en ganado vacuno con heridas infectadas y en ratones. Cienc. Investig. 2009, 12, 29–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  29. Juliano, C.; Magrini, G.A. Cosmetic functional ingredients from botanical sources for anti-pollution skincare products. Cosmetics 2018, 5, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  30. Barrachina, L.M.D.; Bello, R.; Martínez-Cuesta, M.A.; Primo-Yúfera, E.; Esplunges, J. Analgesic and central depressor effects of the dichloromethanol extract from Schinus molle. Phytother. Res. 1998, 11, 317–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Hamdan, D.I.; Amal, A.; Al-Gendy, A.A.; El-Shazly, A.M. Chemical Composition and Cytotoxic Activity of the Essential Oils of Schinus molle Growing in Egypt. J. Pharm. Sci. Res. 2016, 8, 779–793. [Google Scholar]
  32. Tamarit-Urias, J.C. Determinación de los índices de calidad de pulpa para papel de 132 maderas latifoliadas. Madera Bosques 1996, 2, 29–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  33. Mejía-Díaz, L.A.; Rutiaga-Quiñones, J.G. Chemical composition of Schinus molle L. wood and kraft pulping process. Rev. Mex. Ing. Quím. 2008, 7, 145–149. [Google Scholar]
  34. Olvera-Licona, G.; Machuca, R.; Borja, A.; Corona, A.; Zaragoza, I.; Arreola, J.G.; Jiménez, J. Xilotecnia de la madera de Schinus molle L. de una plantación forestal comercial en Hidalgo, México. Madera Bosques 2021, 27, e2711567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  35. Guerra-Coss, F.A.; Badano, E.I.; Cedillo-Rodríguez, I.E.; Ramírez-Albores, J.E.; Flores, J.; Barragán-Torres, F.; Flores-Cano, J.A. Modelling and validation of the spatial distribution of suitable habitats for the recruitment of invasive plants on climate change scenarios: An approach from the regeneration niche. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 777, 146007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  36. Iponga, D.M.; Milton, S.J.; Richardson, D.M. Superiority in competition for light: A crucial attribute defining the impact of the invasive alien tree Schinus molle (Anacardiaceae) in South African savanna. J. Arid Environ. 2008, 72, 612–623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  37. Rasouli, H.; Hosseini-Ghazvini, S.M.; Adibi, H.; Khodarahmi, R. Differential α-amylase/α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of plant-derived phenolic compounds: A virtual screening perspective for the treatment of obesity and diabetes. Food Funct. 2017, 8, 1942–1954. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  38. Scott, L.J.; Spencer, C.M. Miglitol: A review of its therapeutic potential in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs 2000, 59, 521–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  39. Kashtoh, H.; Baek, K.H. Recent Updates on Phytoconstituent Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors: An Approach towards the Treatment of Type Two Diabetes. Plants 2022, 11, 2722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  40. Feriani, A.; Tir, M.; Mufti, A.; Caravaca, A.M.G.; Contreras, M.D.M.; Taamalli, A.; Carretero, A.S.; Aldawood, N.; Nahdi, S.; Alwasel, S.; et al. HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS profiling and therapeutic effects of Schinus terebinthifolius and Schinus molle fruits: Investigation of their antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties. Inflammopharmacology 2021, 29, 467–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  41. Feriani, A.; Tir, M.; Hamed, M.; Sila, A.; Nahdi, S.; Alwasel, S.; Harrath, A.H.; Tlili, N. Multidirectional insights on polysaccharides from Schinus terebinthifolius and Schinus molle fruits: Physicochemical and functional profiles, in vitro antioxidant, anti-genotoxicity, antidiabetic, and antihemolytic capacities, and in vivo anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive properties. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 15, 2576–2587. [Google Scholar]
  42. Ranilla, L.G.; Kwon, Y.I.; Apostolidis, E.; Shetty, K. Phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity and in vitro inhibitory potential against key enzymes relevant for hyperglycemia and hypertension of commonly used medicinal plants, herbs and spices in Latin America. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 4676–4689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  43. İlgün, S.; Şeker Karatoprak, G.; Çiçek Polat, D.; Köngül Şafak, E.; Yücel, Ç.; İnce, U.; Uvat, H.Ö.; Küpeli Akkol, E. Assessment of Phenolic Composition, Antioxidant Potential, Antimicrobial Properties, and Antidiabetic Activity in Extracts Obtained from Schinus molle L. Leaves and Fruits. Front. Biosci. (Landmark Ed.) 2023, 28, 353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  44. Kaabi, Y.A. Potential Roles of Anti-Inflammatory Plant-Derived Bioactive Compounds Targeting Inflammation in Microvascular Complications of Diabetes. Molecules 2022, 27, 7352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  45. Pannucci, E.; Spagnuolo, L.; De Gara, L.; Santi, L.; Dugo, L. Phenolic Compounds as Preventive and Therapeutic Agents in Diabetes-Related Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Advanced Glycation End-Products Production and Insulin Sensitivity. Discov. Med. 2023, 35, 715–732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  46. Hotamisligil, G.S. Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature 2006, 444, 860–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  47. Esser, N.; Legrand-Poels, S.; Piette, J.; Scheen, A.J.; Paquot, N. Inflammation as a link between obesity, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2014, 105, 141–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  48. Leiherer, A.; Mündlein, A.; Drexel, H. Phytochemicals and their impact on adipose tissue inflammation and diabetes. Vascul. Pharmacol. 2013, 58, 3–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  49. Taylor, A.; Oyedeji, O.O.; Aremu, O.; Oyemitan, I.; Gwebu, E.T.; Oyedeji, A.O.; Nkeh-Chungag, B.N. Assessment of the analgesic, anti-inflammatory and sedative effects of the dichloromethanol extract of Schinus molle. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2016, 20, 372–380. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  50. Shawa, A.; Nayal, R.; Abajy, M.Y.; Hasan, N.K. In vitro and In vivo Assessment of the Anti-inflammatory activity of Schinus molle. RJPT 2025, 18, 2049–2054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  51. Yueqin, Z.; Recio, M.C.; Máñez, S.; Giner, R.M.; Cerdá-Nicolás, M.; Ríos, J.L. Isolation of two triterpenoids and a biflavanone with anti-Inflammatory activity from Schinus molle fruits. Planta Med. 2003, 69, 893–898. [Google Scholar]
  52. Nicolls, M.R.; Haskins, K.; Flores, S.C. Oxidant stress, immune dysregulation, and vascular function in type I diabetes. Antioxid. Redox Signal 2007, 9, 879–889. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  53. Davì, G.; Falco, A.; Patrono, C. Lipid peroxidation in diabetes mellitus. Antioxid. Redox Signal 2005, 7, 256–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  54. Bashkin, A.; Ghanim, M.; Abu-Farich, B.; Rayan, M.; Miari, R.; Srouji, S.; Rayan, A.; Falah, M. Forty-One Plant Extracts Screened for Dual Antidiabetic and Antioxidant Functions: Evaluating the Types of Correlation between α-Amylase Inhibition and Free Radical Scavenging. Molecules 2021, 26, 317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  55. Kim, M.J.; Kim, D.W.; Kim, J.G.; Shin, Y.; Jung, S.K.; Kim, Y.J. Analysis of the Chemical, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Pink Pepper (Schinus molle L.). Antioxidants 2021, 30, 1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  56. do Rosário Martins, M.; Arantes, S.; Candeias, F.; Tinoco, M.T.; Cruz-Morais, J. Antioxidant, antimicrobial and toxicological properties of Schinus molle L. essential oils. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 151, 485–492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  57. Salem, M.Z.M.; Zayed, M.Z.; Ali, H.M. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of extracts from Schinus molle wood branch growing in Egypt. J. Wood Sci. 2016, 62, 548–561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  58. Shehata, M.E.; El-Sherbiny, G.M.; Sharaf, M.H.; Kalaba, M.H.; Shaban, A.S. Phytochemical analysis, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of Schinus molle (L.) extracts. Biomass Convers. Biorefinery 2025, 15, 3753–3770. [Google Scholar]
  59. Bras, C.; Gumilar, F.; Gandini, N.; Minetti, A.; Ferrero, A. Evaluation of the acute dermal exposure of the ethanolic and hexanic extracts from leaves of Schinus molle var. areira L. in rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 137, 1450–1456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  60. Machado, C.D.; Farago, P.V.; Costa, C.M.; Farias, K.S.; Silva, D.B.; Marques, A.A.M.; Moreno, K.G.T.; Pael, L.A.B.; da Silva, M.L.F.; Gasparotto Junior, A.; et al. Acute toxicity and genotoxicity of Schinus molle L. aqueous extract/ethanol-soluble fraction in rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2024, 333, 118499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  61. Bras, C.; Domínguez, S.; Codón, S.; Minetti, A.; Ferrero, A. Consequences of subchronic exposure to ethanolic extract from fruits and leaves of Schinus molle var. areira L. in mice. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2010, 132, 321–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  62. Ferrero, A.; Minetti, A.; Bras, C.; Zanetti, N. Acute and subacute toxicity evaluation of ethanolic extract from fruits of Schinus molle in rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2007, 113, 441–447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  63. Mügge, F.L.B.; Morlock, G.E. Chemical and cytotoxicity profiles of 11 pink pepper (Schinus spp.) samples via non-targeted hyphenated high-performance thin-layer chromatography. Metabolomics 2023, 19, 48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  64. Rios, M.Y.; Salinas, D.; Villarreal, M.L. Cytotoxic activity of moronic acid and identification of the new triterpene 3,4-seco-olean-18-ene-3,28-dioic acid from Phoradendron reichenbachianum. Planta Med. 2001, 67, 443–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  65. Burgess, J.L.; Wyant, W.A.; Abdo Abujamra, B.; Kirsner, R.S.; Jozic, I. Diabetic Wound-Healing Science. Medicina 2021, 57, 1072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  66. Li, W.; Yuan, G.; Pan, Y.; Wang, C.; Chen, H. Network Pharmacology Studies on the Bioactive Compounds and Action Mechanisms of Natural Products for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus: A Review. Front Pharmacol. 2017, 23, 74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  67. Riyaphan, J.; Pham, D.C.; Leong, M.K.; Weng, C.F. In Silico Approaches to Identify Polyphenol Compounds as α-Glucosidase and α-Amylase Inhibitors against Type-II Diabetes. Biomolecules 2021, 11, 1877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  68. Kim, J.H.; Ryu, Y.B.; Kang, N.S.; Lee, B.W.; Heo, J.S.; Jeong, I.Y.; Park, K.H. Glycosidase inhibitory flavonoids from Sophora flavescens. Biol Pharm Bull. 2006, 29, 302–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  69. Weinberg Sibony, R.; Segev, O.; Dor, S.; Raz, I. Overview of oxidative stress and inflammation in diabetes. J Diabetes 2024, 16, e70014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] [PubMed]
  70. Yaribeygi, H.; Sathyapalan, T.; Atkin, S.L.; Sahebkar, A. Molecular Mechanisms Linking Oxidative Stress and Diabetes Mellitus. Oxid. Med. Cell Longev. 2020, 2020, 8609213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  71. Nkhumeleni, Z.; Phoswa, W.N.; Mokgalaboni, K. Purslane Ameliorates Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 12276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  72. Feriani, A.; Tir, M.; Aldahmash, W.; Mnafgui, K.; Hichem, A.; Gómez-Caravaca, A.M.; Del Mar Contreras, M.; Taamalli, A.; Alwasel, S.; Segura-Carretero, A.; et al. In vivo evaluation and molecular docking studies of Schinus molle L. fruit extract protective effect against isoproterenol-induced infarction in rats. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2022, 29, 80910–80925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  73. Morieri, M.L.; Pipino, C.; Doria, A. Pharmacogenetics of Cardiovascular Prevention in Diabetes: From Precision Medicine to Identification of Novel Targets. J. Pers. Med. 2022, 12, 1402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  74. Vuorinen, A.; Seibert, J.; Papageorgiou, V.P.; Rollinger, J.M.; Odermatt, A.; Schuster, D.; Assimopoulou, A.N. Pistacia lentiscus Oleoresin: Virtual Screening and Identification of Masticadienonic and Isomasticadienonic Acids as Inhibitors of 11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase 1. Planta Med. 2015, 81, 525–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  75. Eryigit, T.; Yildirim, B.; Ekici, K.; Çirka, M. Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties of Schinus molle L. Essential Oil from Turkey. JEOBP 2017, 20, 570–577. [Google Scholar]
  76. Floris, S.; Di Petrillo, A.; Pintus, F.; Delogu, G.L. Pistacia lentiscus: Phytochemistry and Antidiabetic Properties. Nutrients 2024, 16, 1638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  77. Pett, K.D.; Alex, P.G.; Weisfuss, C.; Sandhu, A.; Burton-Freeman, B.; Edirisinghe, I. Mango Consumption Is Associated with Increased Insulin Sensitivity in Participants with Overweight/Obesity and Chronic Low-Grade Inflammation. Nutrients 2025, 17, 490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
  78. Rossini, C.; Menéndez, P.; Dellacassa, E.; Moyna, P. Essential oils from leaves of Schinus molle and S. lentiscifolius of Uruguayan origin. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1996, 8, 71–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Article Metrics

Citations

Article Access Statistics

Journal Statistics
Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view.
Additive Anticancer and Antioxidant Effects of Metformin and Luteolin in Breast and Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines
Previous
Overlap and Divergence in Ketamine and Lithium Response in Bipolar Disorder: A Scoping Review
Next