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Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications
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Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications

A special issue of Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (ISSN 2411-5142). This special issue belongs to the section "Sports Medicine and Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2026 | Viewed by 7788

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Alfredo Irurtia

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
INEFC-Barcelona Research Group on Sport Sciences (GRCE), National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC), University of Barcelona, 08038 Barcelona, Spain
Interests: body composition; nutritional education; youth sports; sports performance
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue invites original research, methodological papers, systematic reviews, and brief communications on body composition assessment across health, performance, and clinical contexts. We particularly welcome studies on the validity, reliability, and sensitivity to change of established and emerging tools, including DXA, BIA and localized/segmental/ML-BIA, ultrasound, MRI/CT, 3D optical scanning, isotope methods, and field-based approaches. Topics of interest include standardization and quality control, cross-platform calibration, measurement error and minimal detectable changes, comparisons between techniques, and multimodal integration (e.g., coupling imaging with bioimpedance or hematological/biochemical markers). We also encourage applications in athlete monitoring (e.g., female athletes, youth, weight-category and endurance sports), aging and sarcopenia, rehabilitation, cardiometabolic risk, and energy availability. Papers addressing ethical, practical, and cost-effectiveness considerations, open data, and reporting guidelines are welcome. Our aim is to advance rigorous, transparent, and actionable body composition assessment that informs practice and research.

Prof. Dr. Alfredo Irurtia
Guest Editor

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • body composition technology
  • DXA
  • BIA
  • BIVA
  • ultrasound
  • anthropometry
  • athlete monitoring
  • health monitoring
  • aging, sarcopenia, and rehabilitation
  • multimodal integration of methods

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 1039 KB  
Article
Body Composition’s Association with Resting Energy Expenditure Prediction in a Large Population Sample from Different Age Groups, Sex, and Physical Activity Levels
by Lucas Bertoluci Zuquieri, Gabriel de Souza Zanini, Danilo Alexandre Massini, Eliane Aparecida de Castro, Wellington Segheto, Cassiano Merussi Neiva, Pedro José Benito and Dalton Müller Pessôa Filho
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010101 - 27 Feb 2026
Viewed by 438
Abstract
Background: Resting energy expenditure (REE) represents 60–75% of total daily energy expenditure and is mainly determined by fat-free mass (FFM). Indeed, the predictive equations vary according to FFM techniques and population characteristics. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the influence of dual-energy X-ray [...] Read more.
Background: Resting energy expenditure (REE) represents 60–75% of total daily energy expenditure and is mainly determined by fat-free mass (FFM). Indeed, the predictive equations vary according to FFM techniques and population characteristics. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the influence of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)-derived FFM on REE prediction by different predictive equations in a large and diverse cohort. Methods: A total of 1987 active and sedentary participants of both sexes (43.8 ± 19.4 years) underwent body composition assessment by DXA. REE was predicted using the Harris–Benedict, Schofield, Mifflin–St Jeor (weight- and height-based), and Mifflin (FFM-based) equations. Statistical analyses included Kruskal–Wallis, Spearman correlations, and linear regression. Results: Men presented higher absolute FFM, whereas women exhibited higher relative fat mass (FM) (p < 0.01). Across age groups, FFM declined progressively, while FM increased (p < 0.01). The REE differed significantly (p < 0.001) between equations, with the lowest values predicted from the FFM-based model, while the Harris–Benedict and Schofield equations showed the highest REE, especially in women. Strong correlations were observed between FFM and REE (r = 0.77–0.98; p < 0.01) for all age groups and equations, whereas FM showed strong correlations (r = 0.77–0.85; p < 0.01) only for the ≥60 years group. REE tended to be higher in active than sedentary participants, with the correlations to FFM and FM exhibiting a similar profile to that observed for the whole group. Conclusions: FFM showed a strong association with the estimate of REE in active and sedentary participants from both sexes and different age groups, but FM showed a similar trend in older participants only. Therefore, the increase or the maintenance of FFM with an active lifestyle is important to keep REE at high and efficient levels regardless of sex and age. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications)
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15 pages, 1507 KB  
Article
Specific Bioelectrical Vector Reference Values for Italian Adults: A Multicentre Study
by Federica Frau, Eduardo Pizzo Junior, Valeria Succa, Silvia Stagi, Federica Moro, Francesco Sguaizer, Cristian Petri, Antonio Paoli, Gabriele Mascherini, Pascal Izzicupo, Simona Bertoli, Luisa Gilardini, Luca Cavaggioni, Emanuele Cereda, Francesco Campa, Margherita Micheletti Cremasco, Stefania Toselli and Elisabetta Marini
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010081 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 462
Abstract
Objective: Since specific bioelectrical reference values for Italian adults are lacking, this study aims to define specific values and test their suitability in pathological cases and athletes. Methods: A sample of 1049 Italian individuals (441 men, 608 women) aged 30–65 years was considered. [...] Read more.
Objective: Since specific bioelectrical reference values for Italian adults are lacking, this study aims to define specific values and test their suitability in pathological cases and athletes. Methods: A sample of 1049 Italian individuals (441 men, 608 women) aged 30–65 years was considered. Competitive athletes (bodybuilding, streetlifting and tennis) were identified within the general sample, and an independent group of individuals with obesity or anorexia nervosa was analyzed for comparison. Anthropometric (weight, kg; stature, mid-upper arm, waist and calf circumferences; cm) and bioelectrical (resistance and reactance, at 50 kHz) variables were taken. Resistivity, (Rsp, Ωcm), reactivity (Xcsp, Ωcm), impedivity (Zsp, Ωcm) and phase angle (PhA, °) were calculated. Two-way ANOVA and Hotelling’s T2 test were applied to assess group differences. These data were then pooled with existing datasets to create a comprehensive reference for individuals aged 18 to 100 years. Results: The specific bioelectrical variables were: Rsp = 352.3 ± 55.5, Xcsp = 41.8 ± 9.1, PhA = 6.8 ± 1.0, r (Rsp, Xcsp) = 0.67 (men); Rsp = 384.9 ± 71.2, Xcsp = 40.7 ± 9.4, PhA = 6.1 ± 1.0, r (Rsp, Xcsp) = 0.72 (women). Men showed higher PhA values (p < 0.001), reflecting higher muscle mass and quality, and shorter vectors (p < 0.001), indicative of lower relative fat mass (FM%), than women. Advancing age was associated with lower PhA and longer vectors (p < 0.001). Bioelectrical vectors of individuals with obesity or anorexia nervosa were outside the 95% variability, indicating abnormal values of FM%, whereas those of athletes fell within the lower left quadrant. Conclusions: The specific tolerance ellipses for the Italian adult population fill a gap in the existing literature, providing essential new tools for evaluating body composition in clinical and sports settings, and for comparative analyses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications)
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20 pages, 443 KB  
Article
Associations Between Nutritional Intake, Body Composition, Menstrual Health, and Performance in Elite Female Trail Runners
by Nil Piñol-Granadino, Marta Carrasco-Marginet, Silvia Puigarnau, Javier Espasa-Labrador, Álex Cebrián-Ponce, Fabrizio Gravina-Cognetti, Maria Darder-Terradas and Joan Solé-Fortó
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040482 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1439
Abstract
Background: This study examined nutritional intake, body composition, menstrual health, and performance in elite female trail runners. Methods: A cross-sectional multivariate analysis was conducted on 35 athletes (14 eumenorrheic, 21 amenorrheic/oligomenorrheic). Nutritional intake was assessed through 7-day and 24 h food [...] Read more.
Background: This study examined nutritional intake, body composition, menstrual health, and performance in elite female trail runners. Methods: A cross-sectional multivariate analysis was conducted on 35 athletes (14 eumenorrheic, 21 amenorrheic/oligomenorrheic). Nutritional intake was assessed through 7-day and 24 h food records; anthropometry followed ISAK standards; performance was evaluated via ITRA and UTMB rankings. Statistical analyses included t-tests, MANCOVA, regression models, and Random Forest, adjusting for body composition and covariates. Results: Although energy availability (EA) did not differ significantly between groups, 94.3% of athletes had clinically low EA (<30 kcal/kg FFM/day). Amenorrheic athletes consumed more simple carbohydrates (21.8 ± 5.7% vs. 17.2 ± 3.1%), protein (2.5 ± 0.6 vs. 1.7 ± 0.2 g/kg/day), fiber, and lipids, while eumenorrheic athletes consumed more complex carbohydrates (129.7 ± 27.0 vs. 82.5 ± 33.3 g/day) and most vitamins. Both groups had inadequate calcium and iron intake. Low EA was moderately associated with an ectomorphic somatotype (r = 0.418). Performance negatively correlated with simple carbohydrates (r = −0.624) and positively with complex carbohydrates, total energy, protein, polyunsaturated fats, and zinc (r = 0.300–0.580). No significant performance differences were found between menstrual status groups. Conclusions: Menstrual irregularities did not affect performance, but nutritional patterns strongly influenced both performance and energy availability. Personalized nutrition strategies are essential for optimizing performance and safeguarding health in elite female trail runners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications)
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17 pages, 606 KB  
Article
The Muscle-Bone Unit in Male Elite Soccer Players Aged 14–19
by Valentina Cavedon, Carlo Zancanaro and Chiara Milanese
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040432 - 5 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1014
Abstract
Background: Muscle and bone show reciprocal interactions and are associated in a muscle-bone unit. The muscle-bone unit has been investigated to a very limited extent in soccer players. The objective of this work was to investigate in detail the muscle-bone unit in [...] Read more.
Background: Muscle and bone show reciprocal interactions and are associated in a muscle-bone unit. The muscle-bone unit has been investigated to a very limited extent in soccer players. The objective of this work was to investigate in detail the muscle-bone unit in male youth elite soccer players. Methods: Bone mineral and lean mass were measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The functional muscle-bone unit (fMBU) and the muscle-to-bone ratio (MBR) were calculated from the DXA output in a sample of players aged 14–19 (n = 193) playing in the youth squads of an Italian Serie A team. Results: Statistically significant (p < 0.05) correlations were found between lean mass variables and bone mineral content and density, also after adjusting for age, body mass, stature, maturity, and ethnicity (White/Black). fMBU and MBR were statistically significantly associated with age, body mass, stature, maturity, and ethnicity. Linear regression showed that body lean mass was the strongest predictor for bone mineral content and density. Age was a statistically significant predictor for fMBU and MBR. Playing position did not show any statistically significant relationship with bone mineral content and density, as well as fMBU or MBR. Centiles for fMBU and MBR were calculated as a reference. Conclusions: This work is the first detailed characterization of the muscle-to-bone relationship in soccer players. It is expected to be of use for sport scientists and the wide community of sportsmen and professionals involved in soccer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications)
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Review

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28 pages, 870 KB  
Review
Defining Elite Zones: A Scoping Review of Body Physique and Body Fat in Elite Athletes
by Ximena Martinez-Mireles, Erik Ramírez, José Omar Lagunes-Carrasco, Ricardo López-García, Silvia García, Cristina Bouzas, Rogelio Salas-García and Josep A. Tur
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2026, 11(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11010013 - 29 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1911
Abstract
Background: Body physique refers to body size, structure, and composition. PS is used to describe the profile of athletes in different sports. Aims: To determine body physique and body fat percentage in elite athletes using the Hattori chart and to identify the elite [...] Read more.
Background: Body physique refers to body size, structure, and composition. PS is used to describe the profile of athletes in different sports. Aims: To determine body physique and body fat percentage in elite athletes using the Hattori chart and to identify the elite zone. Methods: Scoping review. The search was performed in PubMed, Google Scholar, Ovid Books, CAB eBooks, Clarivate InCites, MyiLibrary, Web of Science, Taylor & Francis Online, Core Collection, and Scopus. The search strategy was “body physique” OR “anthropometric” OR “body composition” AND “elite athlete” OR “athlete” OR “elite”. Results: Using indirect methods, elite athletes showed intermediate solid body physique (male) and lean intermediate body physique (female), and 13.6% ± 3.6% (male) and 22.3% ± 2.8 (female) body fat. Using doubly indirect methods, elite athletes showed lean intermediate body physique (male), and intermediate body physique (female), and a percentage of body fat of 13.7% ± 5.2% (male) and of 21.7% ± 4.3% (female) of body fat. Conclusions: Hattori’s chart facilitates the visualization of changes in body mass index, fat-free mass index, fat mass index, and percentage of body fat, helping personalize training, monitor composition changes, and guide nutrition programs to optimize performance and health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications)
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25 pages, 2302 KB  
Review
Reference Tolerance Ellipses in Bioelectrical Impedance Vector Analysis Across General, Pediatric, Pathological, and Athletic Populations: A Scoping Review
by Sofia Serafini, Gabriele Mascherini, Raquel Vaquero-Cristóbal, Francisco Esparza-Ros, Francesco Campa and Pascal Izzicupo
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040415 - 22 Oct 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2021
Abstract
Background: Bioelectrical Impedance Vector Analysis (BIVA) is a qualitative method that standardizes resistance and reactance relative to stature (R/H and Xc/H) and plots them as vectors on an R-Xc graph. This equation-free approach assesses body composition, allowing for the evaluation of hydration [...] Read more.
Background: Bioelectrical Impedance Vector Analysis (BIVA) is a qualitative method that standardizes resistance and reactance relative to stature (R/H and Xc/H) and plots them as vectors on an R-Xc graph. This equation-free approach assesses body composition, allowing for the evaluation of hydration status and cellular integrity through tolerance ellipses. This study aimed to systematically map BIVA reference ellipses across general, pediatric, pathological, and athletic populations. Methods: A scoping review was conducted according to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Five databases were searched. Extracted data included (a) sample characteristics (sample size, age, sex, BMI, country, ethnicity), (b) population type, (c) analyzer specifications, and (d) R/H and Xc/H means, standard deviations, and correlation values. Results: A total of 53 studies published between 1994 and July 2025 were included. From these, 508 tolerance ellipses were identified: 281 for the general population (18–92 years), 133 for children/adolescents (0–18 years), 49 for athletes, and 45 for pathological groups. Studies were primarily conducted in Europe and the Americas, using 11 analyzers with variations in measurement protocols, including body side, posture, and electrode placement. Conclusions: This scoping review categorizes the existing BIVA tolerance ellipses by population type, sex, age, BMI, device used, and measurement protocol. The structured presentation is intended to guide researchers, clinicians, nutritionists, and sports professionals in selecting appropriate reference ellipses tailored to specific populations and contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications)
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