Search Results (208)

Groundwater is a strategically important source of drinking water supply in the arid and rural regions of Kazakhstan. The objective of this study is to assess the quality of groundwater at 11 water intakes located in the Kordai, Shu, and Merke Districts of the Shu transboundary basin in the Zhambyl Region. A comprehensive assessment of physicochemical parameters was performed, including concentrations of nitrates, sulfates, chlorides, iron, manganese, and other constituents, with subsequent comparison against regulatory limits defined by Order No. 26 of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan (dated 20 February 2023), GOST standards, and ST RK ISO standards. The findings revealed that a number of water intakes exceeded the maximum allowable concentrations for specific indicators, especially in areas subject to significant anthropogenic pressure. The most vulnerable sources were identified near settlements characterized by intensive agricultural practices and inadequate wastewater treatment systems. Spatial comparison of the results enabled the identification of potentially contaminated areas as well as aquifer zones suitable for drinking water supply. The study emphasizes the importance of regular groundwater monitoring and spatial analysis techniques (GIS) to enhance the reliability and comprehensiveness of water quality assessments. The data obtained in this study can serve as a basis for informed decision-making in the area of water resource protection and contribute to the achievement of United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6)—to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Full article

Background: Access to safe and reliable water and sanitation remains a critical public health and development challenge, with rural and low-income communities being disproportionately affected by inadequate services and heightened exposure to waterborne diseases. Despite global efforts and infrastructure-based progress indicators, significant disparities persist, and these often overlook users’ perceptions of water quality, reliability, and safety. This study explores the determinants of household satisfaction with drinking water in rural areas, comparing subjective user feedback with official access data to reveal gaps in current monitoring approaches and support more equitable, user-centered water governance. Methods: This study was conducted in Kazakhstan’s Atyrau Region, where 1361 residents from 86 rural villages participated in a structured survey assessing household access to drinking water and perceptions of its quality. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multinomial logistic regression to identify key predictors of user satisfaction, with results compared against official records to evaluate discrepancies between reported experiences and administrative data. Results: The field survey results revealed substantial discrepancies between official statistics and residents’ reports, with only 58.1% of respondents having in-house tap water access despite claims of universal coverage. Multinomial logistic regression analysis identified key predictors of user satisfaction, showing that uninterrupted supply and the absence of complaints about turbidity, odor, or taste significantly increased the likelihood of higher satisfaction levels with drinking water quality. Conclusions: This study underscores the critical need to align official water access statistics with household-level experiences, revealing that user satisfaction—strongly influenced by supply reliability and sensory water quality—is essential for achieving equitable and effective rural water governance. Full article

Water supply and sewage drainage pipes have a critical role to play in the provision of clean water and sanitation, and pipe material selection influences infrastructure life, water quality, and microbial communities. Zinc-containing compounds are highly valued due to their mechanical properties, anticorrosion behavior, and antimicrobial properties. However, the effect of zinc salts, such as zinc sulfate heptahydrate and zinc chloride, on biofilm-forming bacteria, including Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis, is not well established. This study investigates the antibacterial properties of these zinc salts under simulated pipeline conditions using minimum inhibitory concentration assays, biofilm production assays, and antibiotic sensitivity tests. Findings indicate that zinc chloride is more antimicrobial due to its higher solubility and bioavailability of Zn²⁺ ions. At higher concentrations, zinc salts inhibit the development of a biofilm, whereas sub-inhibitory concentrations enhance the growth of biofilm, suggesting a stress response in bacteria. zinc chloride also enhances antibiotic efficacy against E. coli but induces resistance in E. faecalis. These findings highlight the dual role of zinc salts in preventing biofilm formation and modulating antimicrobial resistance, necessitating further research to optimize material selection for water distribution networks and mitigate biofilm-associated risks in pipeline systems. Full article

Safe and adequate water supply, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in schools are prerequisites within the right to basic education. WASH facilities across schools in developing nations, particularly in Africa, are unsatisfactory and expose children to risks of disease and infection. This study aims to gather insights into the WASH status of secondary schools in Ibadan, Nigeria, to develop a sustainable water management framework for schools. A concurrent mixed-method design (questionnaires and interviews) was adopted to benchmark water management in schools and inform the design of a framework. Results reveal a wealth of issues and concerns that include infrastructure challenges accessing reliable and safe water supplies, rundown and unhygienic toilet/urinal facilities, and dilapidated sinks/taps, plus resource challenges, such as an absence of tissue paper and soap. These issues are exposing schoolchildren to unnecessary health risks, further supported by reported illnesses and reduced school attendance. Based on these findings, and guided by the UN SDG#6 targets, a water improvement framework has been created and validated by school officials. The framework identifies both short-term and long-term guidance/actions to improve water management in schools across Sub-Saharan Africa. These form crucial steps toward better WASH, building healthier communities and enhancing educational environments and outcomes for schoolchildren. Full article

Microbial contamination and biofilm formation on food contact materials (FCMs) represent critical challenges within the food supply chain, compromising food safety and quality while increasing the risk of foodborne illnesses. Traditional materials often lack sufficient microbial resistance to contamination, creating a high demand for innovative antimicrobial surfaces. This study assessed the effectiveness of a nanosized deposited SiO_xC_yH_z coating approved for food contact on 3D-printed polyamide 12 (PA12) disk substrates, aiming at providing antimicrobial and anti-biofilm functionality to mechanical components and packaging material in the food supply chain. The coating was applied using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) and characterized through Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and contact angle measurements. Coated PA12 samples exhibited significantly enhanced hydrophobicity, with an average water contact angle of 112.9°, thus improving antibacterial performance by markedly reducing bacterial adhesion. Microbiological assays revealed a significant (p < 0.001) bactericidal activity (up to 4 logarithms after 4 h, ≥99.99%) against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including notable foodborne pathogens such as L. monocytogenes, S. aureus, E. coli, and S. typhimurium. SiO_xC_yH_z-coated PA12 surfaces exhibited strong antibacterial activity, representing a promising approach for coating additive-manufactured components and equipment for packaging production in the food and pharmaceutical supply chain able to enhance safety, extend product shelf life, and reduce reliance on chemical sanitizers. Full article

(1) Background: The Guarapiranga reservoir, located in the metropolitan region of São Paulo (RMSP), plays an important role in supplying water to the population. However, the growing urbanization in the region, which has occurred in a disorderly manner and lacks basic sanitation infrastructure, has had a detrimental impact on the reservoir’s conditions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical parameters and detect coliforms to determine the water quality of the Guarapiranga reservoir, as well as to characterize the microbial diversity and antimicrobial-resistance genes (ARGs) present in the reservoir water. (2) Methods: Four sampling campaigns of the Guarapiranga reservoir were carried out between October 2020 and July 2022. Physicochemical analyses, and selective microbiological culture for coliforms, as well as the extraction of bacterial DNA for subsequent sequencing and search for ARGs were carried out. (3) Results: Analysis of the physicochemical results showed a progressive reduction in the quality of the reservoir’s water, and the microbiological tests consistently showed the presence of Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and Klebisiella spp. in the water samples collected from the reservoir. Analyses of the sequencing data showed the predominant presence of the phyla Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Verrucomicrobia, Planctomycetes, and 12 ARGs were detected in the reservoir. (4) Conclusions: The increase in sewage discharge, mainly due to the growth of irregular housing, has affected the quality of the water, as indicated by the physicochemical analysis and detection of coliforms and ARGs. Full article

The universalization of basic sanitation remains a challenge. For the development of sanitation infrastructure projects, it is essential to use water consumption data that accurately reflect reality, ensuring greater precision. This study aimed to determine the per capita contribution to fecal sewage (Cp) in six quilombola residences in Goiás (Brazil). The research was conducted in two phases: (a) a literature review on Cp in similar communities (CpL) and (b) the determination of Cp in six residences from different rural communities (CpP), varying in the number of inhabitants (8, 8, 5, 2, 1, and 1 persons in households R1 to R6, respectively). Flow measurements were obtained using a volumetric flowmeter (nominal flow rate of 1.5 m³/h) installed in the water pipeline supplying the toilet(s) of each household. A dearth of Cp data was observed in the literature, particularly for rural areas. Research on this topic remains in its infancy, as evidenced by the small number of publications (nine papers) published between 2006 and 2022, of which 44.4% reported on-site measurements. In the present study, the CpP ranged from 12.10 L/cap.day to 21.79 L/cap.day, with a mean of 16.22 L/cap.day (CV = 0.239). These calculated values lie within the lower (9.9 L/cap.day) and upper (51.5 L/cap.day) ranges reported in the literature. Generally, estimated data are higher than values calculated from flowrate measurements, highlighting the importance of direct measurements—which can also help reduce construction costs. Therefore, it is recommended that flowrate measurements and Cp calculations be expanded to residences with diverse demographic and geographic characteristics, also incorporating meteorological data, to obtain more accurate results. Full article

Cryptocurrencies have gained global recognition, yet their rapid expansion is accompanied by significant environmental concerns due to their energy-intensive operations. This study employs novel system thinking and system dynamics approaches to examine the impact of cryptocurrencies on energy use, water consumption, and carbon emissions. The findings underscore the significant negative environmental impact resulting from cryptocurrency mining. According to our results, in 2023, the water consumption and carbon emissions of cryptocurrencies amounted to 1859 × 10⁶ m³ and 90.6 × 10⁶ tons CO₂e (0.25% of global CO₂ emissions), respectively, linked to the consumption of 119.7 × 10⁶ MWh of electricity (0.5% of global electricity consumption). To provide context, this volume of water could fulfill the basic drinking water and sanitation needs of a global population that lacks access. Similarly, the electricity consumption equates to supplying a country like Argentina, which has a population of nearly 46 million. Without intervention, these figures are projected to increase sixfold by 2030. We recommend the adoption of renewable energy curtailment for Proof-of-Work cryptocurrency mining. Alternatively, technologies like the Pi network, based on the Stellar Consensus Protocol, offer a sustainable and energy-efficient solution. Full article

In the face of acute water scarcity and sanitation challenges emblematic of arid and semi-arid regions (ASARs), this study investigated the transformative upgrade of the Aqaba Conventional Activated Sludge Wastewater Treatment Plant (CAS-AWWTP) in Jordan. The project, expanding capacity to 40,000 m³/day, integrated sustainable features including renewable energy and repurposed natural treatment ponds functioning as artificial wetlands. The plant’s treatment performance, byproduct valorization, and alignment with sustainable development goals (SDGs) were assessed. Comparative analysis revealed that the upgraded CAS-AWWTP consistently outperforms the previous natural and extended activated sludge systems. CAS-AWWTP average removal efficiencies of BOD₅, COD, TSS, and T-N were 99.1%, 96.6%, 98.7%, and 95.1%, respectively, achieving stringent reuse standards and supplying approximately 30% of Aqaba Governorate’s annual water budget, thus conserving freshwater for domestic use. Furthermore, the plant achieved 44% electrical self-sufficiency through renewable energy integration, significantly reducing its carbon footprint. The creation of artificial wetlands transformed the site into a vital ecological habitat, attracting over 270 bird species and becoming a popular destination for birdwatching enthusiasts, drawing over 10,000 visitors annually. This transformation underscores the plant’s dual role in wastewater treatment and environmental conservation. The AWWTP upgrade exemplifies a holistic approach to sustainable development, impacting multiple SDGs. Beyond improving sanitation (SDG 6), it enhances water reuse for agriculture and industry (SDG 6.4, 9.4), promotes renewable energy (SDG 7), stimulates economic growth (SDG 8), strengthens urban sustainability (SDG 11), fosters resource efficiency (SDG 12), and supports biodiversity (SDG 14/15). The project’s success, facilitated by multi-stakeholder partnerships (SDG 17), provides a replicable model for water-scarce regions seeking sustainable wastewater management solutions. Full article

Access to safe drinking water is a global challenge, with significant disparities affecting public health and quality of life. This study evaluated the relationship between specific water parameters, public satisfaction with treated water, and diarrhea incidence in Southwestern Goiás, Brazil. The objectives were (1) to assess water parameters, including aluminum, iron, manganese, pH, hardness, fecal coliforms, and turbidity, in samples from springs, streams, and municipal supplies; (2) to evaluate residents’ satisfaction with municipal water and their reliance on untreated water sources; and (3) to analyze the impact of transitioning from untreated to treated water following the closure of a spring in 2017 on diarrheal diseases. A longitudinal observational study reviewed diarrhea cases from 2013 to 2019. Treated water met potability standards, while untreated springs showed significant contamination. Dissatisfaction with treated water correlated strongly with continued reliance on untreated springs (p < 0.05), increasing the diarrhea risk nearly ninefold (OR = 8.78; 95% CI = 4.37–18.29). The findings underscore the importance of transitioning to treated water for mitigating diarrheal diseases and enhancing public trust in water safety. This study provides a replicable and scalable approach for improving water sanitation management, addressing waterborne diseases, and supporting public health interventions in diverse global contexts. Full article

Background/Objectives: Anemia adversely affects children’s cognitive and motor development and remains a global public health problem. This study aimed to identify the individual, feeding, household, and community determinants of anemia among children in Mozambique. Methods: We used pooled datasets of two Mozambique representative population-based surveys: the 2011 and 2022–2023 Demographic and Health Surveys. A total sample of 8143 children aged 6–59 months with available hemoglobin testing was included. Multilevel mixed-effects analysis was performed using STATA (18.0). Results: Over a decade, the prevalence of anemia in children aged 6–59 months remained high, increasing slightly from 69.1% in 2011 to 72.9% in 2022. Children aged 6–11 months were less likely to have anemia than children from other age groups (aOR = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.62–0.96). Children who suffered from illnesses (aOR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.18–1.75), received vitamin A supplements (aOR = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.63–0.93), lived in female-headed households (aOR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.01–1.32), and who lived in households with unimproved drinking water sources (aOR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.19–1.65) were more likely to have anemia than their peers. Overall, 16% of the variability in anemia prevalence was attributed to differences between clusters (ICC = 0.16). Conclusions: Childhood anemia remains a critical public health challenge in Mozambique, with prevalence rates exceeding the average for sub-Saharan Africa. Multisectoral approaches to enhance essential supplies’ provision and the primary healthcare monitoring of children at risk favored more investments in rural development and sustainable agriculture, water sanitation, and social care and gender-sensitive work policies that can help tackle childhood anemia. Full article

Sewer networks are essential in supporting the sustainable development of rural settlements. However, many municipalities face difficulties due to inadequate or missing sanitation systems. Thus, the contamination of municipal water supplies has become a pressing issue. In the present study, the process of the sewer network establishment and its impacts on groundwater was assessed in the case of a Hungarian settlement. It was found that, following the realization of wastewater agglomeration in 2015, 85% of households in the municipality were connected by 2023. Results indicate that uninsulated septic tanks used before the sewer system resulted in a high rate of sewage leakage. 3D models using RockWorks software show a groundwater dome of more than 1 m in the vicinity of the septic tank. The discharge had a significant impact on groundwater quality; high NH₄⁺ concentrations (>90 mg/L) within the vicinity of the tank and above the limit value (0.5 mg/L) in the total area were detected. Na⁺ and NO₃⁻ concentrations above the contamination limit also reflect the severe impact of wastewater discharge. Significant positive changes in groundwater quality have been detected following sewerage. Our results highlight the importance of similar investments and draw attention to the positive changes that can be achieved. However, a very significant decrease in water levels was detected both in the vicinity of the septic tank and at the municipal level, which, in addition to precipitation patterns, is mainly attributable to the cessation of sewage outflow. Between 2013 and 2022, the average groundwater level declined by 3.8 m in the settlement. Therefore, long-term monitoring of the investment is essential. Full article

This study assessed the status of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services at (49) selected primary schools in uMfolozi Local Municipality, which is situated in the province of Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa. Data were collected using an observational checklist tool and by conducting a walk-through survey to inspect the conditions of sanitary facilities, observe the hand-washing practices of the school learners, and analyse the accessibility to safe drinking water in school premises. The data were analysed with the Statistical Package for Social Science Version 29. This study revealed that there is easy access to safe drinking water in all but one school. The dependability of the water supply seemed to be one of the most urgent problems in every school, even though all of them have some kind of drinking water infrastructure on their grounds. Municipal water (n = 25, 36%) and rainwater (n = 25, 36%) were the most common type of water used in schools compared to borehole (n = 15, 22%) and tanker truck water (n = 4, 6%). Schools must have a reserved water supply because of the inconsistent supply of municipal water, and because rainwater is a seasonal harvest while borehole water may be affected by factors like load-shedding. The UNICEF-described ratio of one tap or disperser per fifty learners suggests that the water taps in the schoolyard were insufficient in some schools (n = 25, 36%). Rainwater is collected through a gutter system in the school building roofs and stored in 5000–10,000 Jojo tanks. Borehole water is pumped into Jojo tanks at an elevated position where it is stored, and learners receive the water through taps connected to the borehole tanks. During an emergency when there is no water supply from other sources, tanker trucks are hired to fill tanks that are also used to store rainwater. The borehole and rainwater quality appeared to be clear, but water treatment had not been performed, and the microbial quality was unknown. This shows that the Sustainable Development Goal (SGD) 6, clean water and sanitation, is still far from being met. According to national norms and standards for domestic water and sanitation services, people who do not use water treatment or purification techniques fall in the ‘no service’ category and contribute to the water backlog. Pit latrines (n = 46, 94%) and flush toilet (n = 3, 6%) were found to be the only convenient toilet systems used. The number of toilets is not sufficient according to the guidelines. There are (n = 46, 94%) of the schools in the study area using pit latrine due to insufficient or no water supply. In 89.8% of primary schools, sanitation facilities are in working condition in terms of repair and hygiene, while 10.2% are not usable in terms of hygiene, and these are mostly boy’s toilets. All schools (n = 46, 94%) that have flush toilets is because they received sponsorship from non-government stakeholders that funded them in achieving piped water systems that permit the functionality of flush toilets. For the purposes of this study, hygiene was evaluate based on the items found in toilets and handwashing practices. The hygiene aspects of toilets included tissues, cleanness, and toilet seat. For handwashing practices we looked the number of washing basins, the colour of water, and having soaps to use. In the schools that did provide handwashing facilities, some of the toilets were broken, there was no water, or there was no drainage system in place to allow them to function. However, according to the school act, the handwash basins should be inside the facilities. A total of (n = 7, 14%) of handwash basins were inside the toilets. Only (n = 2, 4%) of schools had handwashing facilities which were Jojo tanks with taps near toilets, which were outside of the toilet, with no soap provided. Additionally, (n = 40, 82%) of learners used drinking points for handwashing, which can possibly transmit microbes among them. The findings revealed that, in general, (n = 32, 64%) of school toilets were clean, while, in general, the girls’ toilets were cleaner than the boys’ toilets. In all the schools, the cleaning services were from the people who were involved in school nutrition. In conclusion, there were water sources available for access to water inside schools; however, the situation can be improved by increasing the number of water source points. Pit latrines were the main used toilets, which were in a majority of the schools, and did not have the necessary terms for hygiene such as handwashing basin, tissues, and others. The lack of the main aspect, i.e., access to water and sanitation items, results in an impact on hygiene to learners as they will fail to practice proper hygiene. However, improvement can still be made by keeping the boys’ toilets clean while increasing the number of handwashing basins inside the toilets, so that they do not use taps outside the toilets. Schools should work towards meeting the required number of handwashing basins to increase access to handwashing facilities. Full article

The technical training associated with urban water cycle management has a markedly multidisciplinary character. In Spain, training in this field to cover the different professional profiles involved in urban water management ranges from specific intermediate and higher Vocational Education and Training Programmes to related subjects included in various university degrees, as well as specialised master’s degrees in a very specific discipline involved in water management. Paradoxically, the companies in the sector are finding it difficult to find intermediate and higher technicians with training in line with their current needs to meet the challenges they must face in order to manage the sewerage and supply networks as efficiently as possible. It is necessary to incorporate, in Vocational Education centres, innovative methods and means that facilitate the acquisition of the skills required by key sectors for sustainability, such as urban water management. The incorporation of resources that help students to understand complex concepts in this field through the operation of pilot-scale equipment and installations that simulate those they will encounter in their professional performance can be of great value in facilitating the acquisition of the desired competences. In this work, a bibliographical review of the use of pilot plants for teaching purposes, in relation to technical aspects involved in the field of urban water management circumscribed to urban supply and sanitation networks, is carried out in order to assess the degree of their implementation as a training resource, which aspects are most frequently addressed, and the contribution they make to the improvement of teaching–learning processes. Full article

Urban water systems are essential infrastructure but significantly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions through their operation. This study analyzed the greenhouse gas emissions of Incheon’s water system and proposed effective reduction strategies. In 2021, total greenhouse gas emissions from Incheon’s water system are 410,407 tCO₂eq, with the sanitation sector accounting for 82.1% and water supply for 17.9%. N₂O from wastewater treatment contributes 59.2% of total emissions, followed by CO₂ (36.6%) and CH₄ (4.2%). Sensitivity analysis using system dynamics identified per capita water consumption (LPCD) reduction as the most impactful mitigation strategy, surpassing widely adopted strategies such as renewable energy adoption. Scenario analysis showed that an aggressive policy could reduce emissions by 28.8% by 2050 compared to the baseline scenario. These findings provide a decision-making policy for carbon-neutral urban water management, emphasizing the need for integrated approaches to water management, emphasizing water demand reduction, energy efficiency, and sludge management. Full article