Search Results (30)

Antimony (Sb) is a metalloid widely used in different areas—from the cutting-edge renewable energy technologies to “classical” lead acid batteries. Its availability in primary sources is limited, and these sources are geographically unevenly distributed worldwide. Antimony use will increase in the future. That is why Sb is included in the critical raw material lists of the European Union and the USA. In order to mitigate the future Sb shortage, Sb recovery from industrial residues is worth considering. This paper presents the availability of Sb in nonferrous metals extraction waste and the applicability of the hydrometallurgical route for Sb recovery from such sources. Leaching is emphasized. The use of acidic and alkaline leaching methods, their recent modifications, and the effect of different process parameters (reagents’ type, solid-to-liquid ratio, temperature, and the addition of oxidizing reagents) are highlighted. The use of new leaching systems, such as deep eutectic solvents and non-aqueous solutions, is presented. Initial attempts to apply bioleaching are described. Finally, some proposals for future investigations are given. Full article

The rising demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), driven by the growing consumption of electronic devices and the expansion of electric vehicles, is leading to a concerning depletion of primary metal resources and a significant accumulation of electronic waste. This urgent challenge highlights the need for sustainable recovery methods to extract valuable metals from spent LIBs, aligning with circular economy principles. In this study, the preparation of spent batteries for the bioleaching process was achieved with minimal manipulation. This included a preliminary discharge to ensure safety in subsequent processes and a brief crushing to facilitate the access of leaching agents to valuable metals. Unlike most studies that grind batteries to obtain powders between 70 and 200 microns, our approach works with particles sized around 5 mm. Additionally, our preparation process avoids any thermal or chemical treatments. This straightforward pre-treatment process marks a significant advancement by reducing the complexity and cost of processing. A systematic study was conducted on various fractions of the large particle sizes, using Fe (III) produced through bio-oxidation by A. ferrooxidans and biogenically obtained H2SO4 from A. thiooxidans. The highest metal extraction rates were achieved using the unsorted fraction, directly obtained from the black mass after the grinding process, without additional particle separation. When treated with bio-oxidized Fe (III), this fraction achieved a 95% recovery of Cu, Ni, and Al within 20 min, and over 90% recovery of Co, Mn, and Li within approximately 30 min. These recovery rates are attributed to the combined reducing power of Al and Cu already present in the black mass and the Fe (II) generated during the oxidation reactions of metallic Cu and Al. These elements actively facilitate the reduction of transition metal oxides into their more soluble, lower-valence states, enhancing the overall metal solubilization process. The extraction was carried out at room temperature in an acidic medium with a pH no lower than 1.5. These results demonstrate significant potential for efficient metal recovery from spent batteries with minimal pre-treatment, minimizing environmental impact. Additionally, the simplified residue preparation process can be easily integrated into existing waste management facilities without the need for additional equipment. Full article

This study applies a dynamic material flow analysis to track lead flows, in-use stocks, secondary reserves, and recycling trends across eleven major economies from 1950 to 2018. The results show the global lead cycle has shifted from a variety of industrial applications to a predominant reliance on lead–acid batteries. By 2018, China had become the dominant actor, accounting for 82% of global lead extraction and holding 47% of total in-use stocks (58.3 Mt). Despite regulatory efforts to phase out dissipative uses, the global domestic processed output in 2018 reached 1429 kt, surpassing 1976 levels (1148 kt). At the same time, end-of-life lead waste increased to 7717 kt, yet only 48% was successfully recovered, exposing inefficiencies in current recycling and circular economy initiatives. Secondary reserves also varied widely, with China (18.5 Mt) and the US (9.9 Mt) leading in absolute terms, while Europe maintained the highest per capita reserves. The growing competition from lithium-ion batteries raises questions about the long-term role of lead in industry. If demand declines, the accumulation of unmanaged legacy stocks could become a significant environmental challenge. To address these issues, improvements in recycling systems, stricter waste management policies, and the development of sustainable alternatives are needed. Full article

Environmental regulations on lead recycling are becoming increasingly stringent, prompting the search for sustainable alternatives to conventional high-temperature processes. Hydrometallurgical methods in chloride media have emerged as a viable option for recovering lead from mining and urban wastes, including lead anode corrosion residues, zinc leaching residues, and spent lead–acid batteries. This study reviews the key conditions for lead recovery in chloride media, highlighting the variables that optimize lead dissolution, and the potential challenges associated with these processes. The findings indicate that efficient lead recovery requires high chloride concentrations, with acidity playing a critical role depending on the relative concentrations of lead and sulfate in the solution. When lead and sulfate concentrations are similar, stable lead–chloride complexes form within a pH range of 0 to 6.0. However, at higher sulfate concentrations, the pH range narrows significantly to 0 to 2.0, necessitating a more acidic environment for effective dissolution. Chloride media offer a distinct advantage through the formation of stable lead–chloride complexes, whose stability is influenced by chloride concentration, sulfate concentration, pH, and redox potential. Moreover, this approach provides a sustainable alternative that could integrate seawater into industrial processes, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. Full article

A silver-rich lead alloy was obtained through the recycling of two metallurgical wastes: these are lead paste obtained from spent lead–acid batteries and a jarosite residue obtained from the hydrometallurgical production of zinc. Mixtures of both wastes were pyrometallurgically treated with sodium carbonate in a silicon carbide crucible at 1200 °C. The alloy and slag produced were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectra. High silver recovery was obtained in a Pb-Ag alloy for a mixture ratio of 30% Na₂CO₃–40% lead paste–30% jarosite, reaching a silver grade of 126 ppm. The slags produced for the highest jarosite content allow the compound formation of Na₂(SO₄) and Na₂Fe(SO₄)₂, which have high sulfur-fixing, avoiding SO₂ release and contributing to the minimization of atmospheric pollution. The novel pyrometallurgical route addresses not only the valorization of precious metals such as silver and lead but also the reduction in accumulated industrial waste. Full article

This article presents the issue of energy waste in manufacturing processes, focusing on reducing unnecessary energy consumption and CO₂ emissions. A significant challenge in modern production is identifying and minimizing energy waste, which not only increases operational costs but also contributes to environmental degradation. An improvement methodology referred to as 2E-DAmIcS is proposed. A distinguishing feature of the methodology is a risk map of energy waste in the production process. Application of the methodology is demonstrated using the example of a lead–acid battery production process. It is shown that even small but well-diagnosed changes to the process make it possible to significantly reduce energy consumption. The proposed methodology offers practical tools for managers and decision-makers in various industries to systematically identify and minimize energy waste. It highlights the importance of cross-disciplinary collaboration among specialists in technology, energy consumption, and statistical analysis to optimize energy use. By applying this approach, companies can achieve both financial savings and environmental benefits, contributing to more sustainable production practices. Full article

Wastes from spent batteries are a secondary source of raw materials. To ensure this, it is mandatory to design sustainable and low-cost processes. In the case of alkaline and zinc–carbon-based batteries, the high content of Zn and Mn makes them of interest in the development of fertilizers. The main objective of this research is to study the fertilizers production from spent zinc-based batteries, using sulfuric acid, citric acid (CIT) and glycine (GLY) solutions as leaching agents. Leaching with glycine at alkaline pHs shows a high selectivity of Zn over Mn, whereas the use of citric and sulfuric solutions leads to recoveries of Zn and Mn. Solutions with the highest Zn recoveries were tested in sand columns. Commercial ZnSO₄ heptahydrate was used as a control. For sulfuric acid, two solutions (H₂SO₄ 2M and 0.25M) were used. The elution of leached Zn and Mn in sand columns depended on the solution added. The Zn-Mn-CIT treatment showed a slight but steady increase in the leachates, reaching 70% and 75% of the total leached Zn and Mn, respectively, in the medium term. The Zn-Mn-H₂SO₄ 2M and ZnSO₄ treatments showed a similar behavior in Zn release. Both Zn-Mn-GLY and Zn-Mn-H₂SO₄ 0.25M treatments showed similar amounts of leached Mn in the medium term (77% of total leached Mn), differing in the leached Zn. Solutions from the leaching of spent black mass batteries, especially Zn-Mn-CIT or Zn-Mn-GLY, showed promising behavior as fertilizer from the point of view of Zn and Mn availability as nutrients. Full article

Solar-based home PV systems are the most amazing eco-friendly energy innovations in the world, which are not only climate-friendly but also cost-effective solutions. The tropical environment of Malaysia makes it difficult to adopt photovoltaic (PV) systems because of the protracted rainy monsoon season, which makes PV systems useless without backup batteries. Large quantities of lithium-ion battery (LIB) trash are being produced by the electric vehicle (EV) sector. A total of 75% of the highest capacity levels have been discarded. By 2035, it is predicted that the wasted LIBs held as a result of expensive recycling and difficult material separation would carry up to 1200 GWh. An economical and sustainable option is offered by our study, which prototypes a replicated LIB pack that is incorporated into a PV home system. This study investigates the transformational power of second-life electric vehicle batteries (SLEVBs) when incorporated into home photovoltaic (PV) systems. The concept entails reusing existing electric vehicle batteries for stationary applications, offering a unique approach to extending the life of these batteries while meeting the growing need for sustainable domestic energy storage. The study looks at the technological feasibility, economic viability, and environmental effect of introducing SLEVBs into household PV systems, giving vital insight into their role in revolutionizing energy storage techniques and promoting sustainability. In comparison to the Lead–Acid Battery (LAB) system, the SLEVB system has a cheaper total cost of ownership, with savings of 12.62% compared with new LABs. A CO₂ emission reduction of at least 20% is achieved by using the SLEVB system compared with LABs. Electricity can be provided in houses in rural areas where there is no electricity. As a result, the security and superiority of the life of rural residents will improve. It is anticipated that the suggested strategy will lower EV pricing, enabling EV adoption for M40 and B40 groups. Consequently, the Malaysian and worldwide EV business will remain viable. Full article

Polysaccharides are functional foods or drugs that can be used to alleviate heavy metal poisoning by cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic. Industries generate substantial quantities of toxic heavy metal wastes, such as wastewater discharges, paints, electronic waste, batteries, pigments, and plastics, into the environment that pose a risk to human health. Therefore, it is imperative to eliminate accumulated heavy metal ions from the body and the environment. Heavy metal toxicity can lead to decreased energy levels and impair the functioning of vital organs, such as the brain, lungs, kidneys, liver, and blood. Prolonged exposure can result in progressive physical, muscular, and neurological degeneration that resembles conditions such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and muscular dystrophy. Polysaccharides operate through mechanisms such as chelation, antioxidant defense, immunomodulation, and tissue repair. Polysaccharides involved in heavy metal removal include methionine and cysteine, together with N-acetylcysteine, an acetylated form of cysteine, S-adenosylmethionine, a metabolite of methionine, α-lipoic acid, and the tripeptide glutathione (GSH). These compounds effectively bind with harmful heavy metals to create a stable complex and defend biological targets from metal ions, thus decreasing their harmful effects and causing them to be excreted from the body. This review also highlights the importance of polysaccharides’ ability to mitigate oxidative stress, enhance immune responses, and support tissue repair processes. Polysaccharides are ubiquitous in nature and take part in diverse processes, making them potential natural therapies for heavy metal-related diseases. This review discusses the effectiveness of natural polysaccharides and the mechanisms that allow them to bind with heavy metals to alleviate their effects from the body and the environment. Polysaccharides have inherent features that enable them to function as pharmacological agents and regulate the immune response. Full article

In this study, we address the ecological challenges posed by automotive battery recycling, a process notorious for its environmental impact due to the buildup of hazardous waste like foundry slag. We propose a relatively cheap and safe solution for lead removal and recovery from samples of this type of slag. The analysis of TCLP extracts revealed non-compliance with international regulations, showing lead concentrations of up to 5.4% primarily in the form of anglesite (PbSO₄), as detected by XRF/XRD. We employed deep eutectic solvents (DES) as leaching agents known for their biodegradability and safety in hydrometallurgical processing. Five operational variables were systematically evaluated: sample type, solvent, concentration, temperature, and time. Using a solvent composed of choline chloride and glycerin in a 2:1 molar ratio, we achieved 95% lead dissolution from acidic samples at 90 °C, with agitation at 470 rpm, a pulp concentration of 5%, and a 5 h duration. Furthermore, we successfully recovered 55% of the lead in an optimized solution using an electrowinning cell. This research demonstrates the ability of DES to decontaminate slag, enabling compliance with regulations, the recovery of valuable metals, and new possibilities for the remaining material. Full article

Spent portable batteries belong to the category of hazardous waste, sometimes dumped together with non-hazardous municipal waste in landfills, resulting in various aquatic environments. Their presence in the aquatic environment leads to changes in its quality and its contamination with heavy metals or other toxic elements. This paper highlights the portable battery waste’s influence on the aquatic environment in stagnant conditions. Therefore, three types of batteries and three solutions with different pH values were used to represent the possible media existing in nature: acid (pH = 4.00), rainwater (pH = 5.63), and alkaline (pH = 8.00). After 180 days, the results showed changes in the chromatics and composition of the initial solutions. The analyses showed decreased pH, increased conductivity, and the transfer of several heavy metals into solutions (Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, and Fe). Thus, there were slight exceedances of the maximum allowed values for water quality class I (Order no. 161/2006) in the case of Cu and Pb and higher exceedances in the case of Zn, Ni, and Fe. Zinc–carbon batteries stand out because of the release of Pb and Fe ions. The same applies to lithium manganese dioxide batteries because of Ni ions as well as zinc–manganese alloy batteries because of Cu and Zn ions. Altogether, the negative influence of spent batteries on the aquatic environment is noticed, and the measures for the implementation of safe disposal and processing are necessary. Full article

Spent lead–acid batteries have become the primary raw material for global lead production. In the current lead refining process, the tin oxidizes to slag, making its recovery problematic and expensive. This paper aims to present an innovative method for the fire refining of lead, which enables the retention of tin contained in lead from recycled lead–acid batteries. The proposed method uses aluminium scrap to remove impurities from the lead, virtually leaving all of the tin in it. The results of the conducted experiments indicate the high efficiency of the proposed method, which obtained a pure Pb-Sn alloy. This alloy is an ideal base material for the production of battery grids. This research was carried out on an industrial scale, which confirms the possibility of facile implementation of the method in almost every lead–acid battery recycling plant in the world. Full article

In this study, a method for determining the lead components in waste lead paste was proposed, using simulated and spent lead paste as research objects. To compare the effectiveness of different determining methods, we selected three methods for comparison and investigated the reasons for measurement deviation. The results indicate that the measurement deviation in the current method primarily stems from the following three factors: (1) Pb is soluble in an acetic acid solution under certain conditions; (2) Pb and PbO₂ undergo redox reactions; and (3) hydrogen peroxide can undergo redox reactions with Pb. It is feasible to determine the lead content using the kinetic rules of Pb and PbO₂ in the acetic acid-hydrogen peroxide system. The method of determination proposed in this paper is as follows. Firstly, lead dioxide is dissolved in hydrogen peroxide under acidic conditions. Subsequently, the concentration of lead dioxide is determined, and the quantity of hydrogen peroxide consumed is recorded. Then, a new sample is taken, and the lead oxide is dissolved in an acetic acid solution. The concentration of lead oxide is determined using the EDTA·2Na titration method. The residue of lead sulfate in the filtrate is dissolved in a sodium chloride solution, and its concentration is determined using the EDTA·2Na titration method. Based on the previously recorded volume of hydrogen peroxide, the remaining lead dioxide in the residue is dissolved in a mixture of acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. The remaining lead dioxide is then removed from the new sample employing kinetic principles. Finally, the residual metallic lead in the sample is dissolved in a nitric acid solution, and its concentration is determined using the EDTA·2Na titration method. Full article

With the increase in battery usage and the decommissioning of waste power batteries (WPBs), WPB treatment has become increasingly important. However, there is little knowledge of systems and norms regarding the performance of WPB dismantling treatments, although such facilities and factories are being built across the globe. In this paper, environmental performance is investigated quantitively using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology for a dismantled WPB manufacturing process in Tongliao city of Inner Mongolia Province, China. The functional unit was selected to be one metric ton of processed WPB, and the average data of 2021 were used. The results indicated that WPB dismantling treatments are generally sustainable in their environmental impacts, because the life cycle environmental effects can be neutralized by the substitution of virgin products with recycled counterparts. Of all the processes of dismantlement, Crude Lead Making, Refining, and Preliminary Desulfurization, were the top three contributors to the total environmental burden. The results of the sensitivity analysis showed that increasing photovoltaic power, wind power, and natural gas usage may significantly reduce the burden on the environment. On the basis of our findings, some suggestions are put forward for a policy to promote environmental green growth of WPB treatment. Although this paper is aimed at the power lead–acid battery, the research method is also of significance for the power lithium-ion battery, and we will conduct relevant research on the disassembly process of the power lithium-ion battery in the future. Full article

Iron–chromium redox flow batteries (ICRFB) possess the advantage of low raw material cost, intrinsic safety, long charge–discharge cycle life, good life-cycle economy, and environmental friendliness, which has attracted attention from academia and industry over time. The proton exchange membrane (PEM) is an important part of the ICRFB system, impacting the efficiency and lifetime of the battery. Currently, the most widely used PEMs in the market are per-fluorinated sulfonic acid (PFSA) membranes, which possess high electrolyte stability and achieve the separation of positive and negative electrolytes. In addition, the complex preparation process and extremely high market price limited the usage of PEM in ICRFB. In this paper, we developed a remanufactured membrane (RM) strategy from waste PFSA resins. The RM has higher electrical conductivity and better proton transport ability than the commodity membrane N212. In the cell performance test, the RM exhibits similar coulombic efficiency (CE) as N212 at different current densities, which is stabilized at over 95%. Furthermore, the voltage efficiency (VE) and energy efficiency (EE) of the RM are improved compared to N212. At a current strength of 140 mA cm⁻², the degree of energy loss is lower in the RM, and after 60 cycles, the capacity decay rate is lower by only 16.66%, leading to long-term battery life. It is a cost-effective method for membrane recovery and reformulation, which is suitable for large-scale application of ICRFB in the future. Full article