Search Results (198)

Background: Sensory processing differences are highly prevalent in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and may shape how they interact with their environment and acquire new knowledge. The present study investigated developmental changes in learning potential and cognitive functioning in preschool children with ASD presenting a sensory seeking profile with typical sensitivity. In addition, the study examined which components of early learning potential predicted intellectual functioning two years later. Methods: A longitudinal design was employed with 44 preschool boys with ASD assessed at ages four and six. The potential for learning through dynamic assessment, intelligence and sensory processing patterns was assessed. Paired sample t-tests were conducted to examine developmental changes, and hierarchical regression analyses were used to identify predictors of intellectual functioning at age six. Results: Significant improvements were observed in general cognitive ability, classification ability, and perspective-taking skills across the two-year period. Regression analyses revealed that visual memory, sequential pattern completion, classification ability, and perspective taking significantly predicted intellectual functioning at age six, jointly explaining 51% of the variance in IQ scores. Conclusions: The findings suggest that visuospatial processing and pattern-based reasoning may play a central role in cognitive development among preschool children with ASD who exhibit active sensory engagement. Full article

Objective: Subjective cognitive complaints (SCC) and neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) are both recognized as early markers of dementia, but their combined predictive value is not well understood. This study investigated whether SCC and NPS, individually and jointly, predicted six-year cognitive decline and 12-year incident dementia in community-dwelling older adults. Methods: Participants were 468 dementia-free individuals aged 70–90 from the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study, followed for up to 12 years. Cognitive decline was assessed biennially via neuropsychological tests; dementia diagnoses were made by expert consensus. SCC were captured using two self-reported and one informant-reported item. NPS were assessed using the informant-rated Neuropsychiatric Inventory. SCC and NPS were each operationalised as ordinal scores ranging from 0 to 3, with higher scores reflecting more SCC items or more NPS clusters, respectively, and participants were categorized into SCC−/NPS−, SCC+/NPS−, SCC−/NPS+, SCC+/NPS+. Linear regression models assessed associations with six-year cognitive decline across domains and global cognition, and Cox proportional hazards models assessed incident dementia risk over 12 years. Results: SCC sum scores predicted dementia risk, whereas NPS sum scores were not significantly associated with dementia risk. In the combined SCC/NPS group analyses, SCC+/NPS+ participants had a 66% higher hazard of dementia (HR = 1.66, p = 0.041). For cognitive decline, the SCC−/NPS+ group showed significantly greater decline in executive function, visuospatial ability, and global cognition compared with SCC−/NPS−. Neither SCC+/NPS− nor SCC+/NPS+ predicted domain-specific decline. Discussion: SCC and NPS showed different patterns of association with later outcomes, with the combined SCC/NPS profile identifying a subgroup at elevated dementia risk. These findings support closer monitoring of older adults who present with co-occurring SCC and NPS, as this profile may help improve early identification of individuals at risk of adverse cognitive outcomes. Full article

Background/Objectives: Constructional apraxia (CA) is an impairment in combining simple elements into coherent spatial configurations without basic motor deficits. Although common in neurodegenerative disorders, the qualitative features of visuo-constructional errors and their role in differentiating dementia types remain unclear. This systematic review aimed to synthesize patterns of visuo-constructional errors in dementia and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), exploring distinctive qualitative features associated with different neurodegenerative conditions. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for studies published between January 1990 and January 2026, following PRISMA guidelines. Studies on adults with dementia or MCI assessing drawing/copying abilities through standardized tasks and qualitative error analysis were included. Reviews, meta-analyses, case reports, non-English articles, and studies not explicitly assessing constructional apraxia were excluded. The quality of evidence was assessed using an adapted version of the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. Results: A total of 25 studies were included, showing heterogeneous and condition-specific visuo-constructional deficits. Spatial errors and simplifications were the most common across disorders, while perseverations, rotations, and closing-in phenomena were less frequent. Alzheimer’s disease was mainly associated with spatial disorganization, omissions, and conceptual errors linked to temporo-parietal dysfunction; frontotemporal dementia with executive deficits such as perseverations and planning impairments; Lewy body and Parkinson’s disease dementias with visuospatial and attentional alterations; and Huntington’s disease with simplifications and executive dysfunction related to fronto-striatal involvement. Conclusions: No single error pattern was pathognomonic, but qualitative assessment of constructional errors may provide clinically useful information when integrated with the broader neuropsychological profile. Full article

Introduction: Sleep disturbances are common as we age and have been linked to poor cognition and increased cognitive decline. Objective: We aimed to examine cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between objective sleep measures and cognition in middle-aged and older adults, including cognitively healthy (CH) individuals and those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Methods: Participants from the Aiginition Longitudinal Biomarker Investigation Of Neurodegeneration (ALBION) study (age > 40) underwent 7-day wrist actigraphy (Actiwatch 2). Sleep exposures included sleep duration, sleep efficiency, sleep variability, sleep onset latency, wake after sleep onset (WASO), and number of awakenings. A neuropsychological battery was administered examining memory, executive function, visuospatial ability, language, attention speed, and a global composite score. Cross-sectional associations were tested using generalized linear models (adjusted for age, sex, education). Longitudinal associations with cognitive trajectories were examined with linear mixed-effect models. Results: In total (N = 184; 65% women; mean age 65 years), average sleep duration was 7.2 h and mean sleep efficiency was at 80%. Cross-sectionally, more nightly awakenings were associated with poor memory and attention speed. In a 1.5-year follow-up, (n = 93), higher baseline sleep efficiency was associated with better memory and language performance, while longer WASO, more awakenings, and longer sleep onset latency showed nominal associations with less favorable cognitive trajectories, although these associations did not remain statistically significant after FDR correction. Time-varying analyses indicated that sleep variability showed robust non-linear associations with poorer memory trajectories over follow-up and remained significant after FDR adjustment; significant mean change in awakenings and variability appeared to intensify in later follow-up phases. The association between sleep characteristics and cognitive decline varied across follow-up time, with stronger adverse changes observed during later follow-up phases. Discussion: Objective indicators of sleep continuity, especially sleep variability, were most consistently related to domain-specific cognitive outcomes, with strongest evidence for memory over time. Sleep fragmentation and irregular sleep patterns may represent potentially modifiable targets for future strategies aimed at preserving cognitive health during aging. Full article

Background/Objectives: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neurological disorder affecting more than 2.8 million individuals worldwide and is commonly associated with cognitive deficits that compromise independence and quality of life. In recent years, virtual reality (VR) has emerged as an innovative rehabilitation strategy, offering immersive and engaging environments that promote neuroplasticity and enhance patient motivation. To evaluate the effectiveness of immersive and non-immersive VR-based interventions in improving cognitive performance among adults diagnosed with MS. Methods: A systematic review was conducted following the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions and PRISMA 2020 guidelines (PROSPERO registration: CRD420251103762). Comprehensive searches were carried out across seven international databases up to October 2025, including only randomized controlled trials assessing cognitive outcomes after VR-based rehabilitation programs. Results: From 1948 records screened, 13 studies comprising 649 participants met the inclusion criteria. Intervention durations ranged between 6 and 17 weeks, with sessions lasting 30–60 min. The interventions involved treadmill training with VR, exergaming, and cognitive stimulation protocols. Most studies demonstrated significant improvements in processing speed, visuospatial and verbal memory, and executive functioning (p < 0.05). Adherence rates were above 80%, and no serious adverse events were reported. Conclusions: VR-based rehabilitation appears to be a safe, feasible, and effective approach for enhancing cognitive abilities in individuals with MS, particularly in processing speed and visuospatial memory. Nonetheless, the heterogeneity of methodologies underscores the need for standardized intervention frameworks and large-scale multicenter randomized trials to establish optimal parameters and confirm sustained long-term benefits. Full article

Background: Spatial cognition, a skill paramount to survival, is impaired in Parkinson’s disease (PD) but has been little researched. Spatial cognition is utilized during motor–cognitive integration, which impacts daily functioning and quality of life in PD. As PD is a unilateral-onset condition, spatial–cognitive and motor–cognitive ability may differ by side of onset. Spatial cognition is suggested to be modulated by the right hemisphere; thus, we hypothesize to observe worse spatial and motor–cognitive performance by people with left-onset PD (LOPD) than right-onset PD (ROPD). Methods: 216 participants with PD were recruited (LOPD = 107; M = 62; mean age = 69.80 ± 8.5). Spatial outcomes were collected via the body position spatial task (BPST), Reverse Corsi Blocks, and visuospatial items of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA); motor–cognitive outcomes were collected by a Trails test, a Four Square Step Test (FSST), and a Timed Up and Go test. An independent t-test and the Mann–Whitney U test compared outcome variables between onset groups. Results: No significant differences were found between onset groups. Exploratory subgroup analyses revealed differences. Significantly worse performance by LOPD in single- and dual-task TUG was found within people with bilateral symptoms and postural instability (Hoehn & Yahr stage, >2; LOPD, N = 33; single, p = 0.001; dual, p = 0.021) and worse performance in single-task TUG in people with MoCA < 18 (LOPD, N = 5; single, p = 0.036) and people with freezing of gait (FOGQ, >0; LOPD, N = 14, p = 0.048). Significantly larger DTC by LOPD was found within frequent freezers (FOGQ, >3; LOPD, N = 9; p = 0.003). Conclusions: LOPD may tend to perform worse in motor–cognitive tasks among subgroups of those with more severe symptoms, i.e., those at later stages of disease. These findings may have implications for prognoses of those with LOPD versus ROPD and suggest that those with LOPD may have worse long-term outcomes in spatial cognition and motor–cognitive integration. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study evaluates the feasibility and preliminary effects of a short version of the Enriched Motor Program (EMP), an intervention combining aerobic and cognitive exercises, adapted to support the development of executive functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Executive functions are high-order cognitive abilities necessary to manage everyday social and adaptive tasks. Methods: The sample included two children with ASD (boys) with an average chronological age of eight years. The intervention was delivered once per week, over 12 weeks, and children’s executive functions were assessed before and after the intervention. Working memory was assessed using the Backward Word Span and the Mr. Cucumber tests; inhibitory control was measured via the Circle Drawing Task and the Day/Night Stroop. Results: The data for both children were analyzed using the Reliable Change Index (RCI), which indicated a reliable change in visuo-spatial working memory for the child with level 2 ASD. Conclusions: These findings provide encouraging preliminary results concerning the feasibility of a short version of the EMP. Enriched motor programs could be considered as suitable activities complementary to the main clinical therapy. Full article

Background: Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a multisystem neurodegenerative disorder associated with cognitive and emotional disturbances, including visuospatial deficits and alexithymia, which may substantially affect quality of life (QoL). The metabolic underpinnings of non-motor and emotional features within deep basal ganglia nuclei remain poorly understood. This exploratory proof-of-concept study aimed to examine ¹H-MRS-derived metabolite ratios in the substantia nigra (SN) and globus pallidus (GP) and to explore their preliminary associations with visuospatial-attentional abilities and alexithymia. Methods: Fifteen individuals with PD and 15 healthy controls (HCs) underwent Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) targeting the SN and GP bilaterally. Metabolite ratios were quantified with LCModel and analyzed as left, right, and hemisphere-averaged measures. PD participants completed a multidisciplinary assessment including motor severity, cognition, visuospatial abilities, mood and alexithymia. Multiple testing was controlled using false discovery rate (FDR). Given the between-group imbalance in age and education, exploratory covariate-adjusted sensitivity analyses were also performed. Results: PD participants were older, less educated, and showed lower global cognition than HCs, including significantly reduced MoCA scores (20.9 ± 6.6 vs. 28.7 ± 1.8; FDR-corrected p < 0.001). In uncorrected analyses, between-group metabolite comparisons showed lower myo-inositol (Ins) in the SN (p = 0.04) and higher glutamatergic signal in the right GP in PD relative to HCs (p = 0.03); however, these differences were not robust after adjustment for age, education and multiple testing. Within the PD group, an uncorrected right–left asymmetry was observed for pallidal Ins. Exploratory correlations suggested uncorrected associations between SN metabolites and alexithymia dimensions related to emotional awareness and verbalization, whereas GP metabolites were more frequently associated with selected visuospatial, attentional, language-related, and broader cognitive measures. None of these associations survived FDR correction. Conclusions: This exploratory proof-of-concept study provides preliminary feasibility data and effect-size estimates for future ¹H-MRS investigations of basal ganglia metabolites in PD. Given the small sample size, lack of cognitive matching, age and education imbalance, and absence of correction-surviving associations, the findings should not be interpreted as evidence of PD-specific neurometabolic markers. Larger, prospectively matched, and adequately powered studies are needed. Full article

Research on academic achievement highlights the combined role of cognitive abilities and motivational beliefs. Grounded in the CHC framework, this study examined how three broad cognitive abilities—verbal, numeric, and spatial—and academic self-concept jointly predict achievement in Portuguese and mathematics. A sample of 3034 students from the third cycle (grades 7–9) and secondary education (grades 10–12) completed the BAC-AB cognitive battery and a validated academic self-concept scale. Using multigroup structural equation modelling, we tested whether the predictive patterns differed across educational stages. Academic self-concept emerged as the most consistent predictor across subjects and levels. Cognitive contributions displayed clear developmental differentiation: verbal ability was more strongly associated with Portuguese (and increasingly with Mathematics) in secondary education, whereas numeric and spatial abilities were comparatively more relevant for Mathematics in the third cycle. These patterns support the view that linguistic, quantitative, and visuospatial processes contribute to achievement in distinct and developmentally sensitive ways. Overall, the findings underscore the importance of instructional approaches that build on quantitative and spatial strengths in earlier grades while progressively supporting advanced verbal comprehension and reasoning in later schooling. Full article

Aging is a significant risk factor for several neurodegenerative diseases. Understanding brain aging processes is a fundamental step in identifying the early signs of pathological dysfunction. Nonetheless, regional functional changes are still poorly characterized. In this study, we employed Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) to investigate age-related changes in the scale-free temporal dynamics of blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal fluctuations derived from resting-state networks. We compared DFA to fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF) to assess their ability to discriminate between young and old adults. Significant decreases (p < 0.01) in fALFF in the visuospatial and dorsal default mode networks and in DFA in the salience network, were identified as key predictors of functional brain aging. Using machine learning, we showed that DFA and fALFF provide complementary information for predicting aging, with an accuracy of approximately 80% achieved only through their combined use. Overall, DFA captures alterations in scale-free temporal organization that complement conventional spectral measures, providing additional insight into network-specific functional aging. Full article

The purported benefits of Virtual Reality for pilot flight simulator training, such as increased immersion and presence, would be of great benefit in training those flight skills that rely on visuospatial awareness. The implementation of this technology for the training of pilots requires careful consideration of its ability to transfer required skills and of any comparative advantages over conventional flight simulators. In order to examine this question, a quasi-transfer-of-training study was conducted using a separate-sample pretest–posttest design. The ability of a low-cost VR simulator to transfer flying skills and mission projection skills, using internally valid measures, during a common flight manoeuvre was evaluated. Results were consistent with improved post-intervention flying performance (g = 0.875) and ‘mission projection’ performance (g = 0.661), with no statistically significant difference between the estimated effect sizes, as well as the combined measure (g = 0.768). The findings indicate that the VR simulator was associated with better performance in the quasi-transfer of basic flying skills, those skills that require understanding of spatial relationships based on visual information, and in the broader training of technique. These findings must, however, be considered in the context of the noted limitations of the technology and the research design. Full article

The Benson Complex Figure Test (BCFT) is a neuropsychological tool designed to assess visuospatial construction and visual memory with lower complexity than traditional tests. This study evaluated its ability to differentiate between major dementia subtypes. In a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of 1428 participants from a Greek third-age day center (healthy participants [Controls]; patients diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease dementia [ADD], Lewy body dementia [LBD], Frontotemporal dementia [FTD: behavioral variant (BV), non-fluent variant (NFV), semantic variant (SV)], Corticobasal dementia [CBD], Parkinson’s disease dementia [PDD], and mixed Cardiovascular dementia with Alzheimer’s disease [CVD/AD]), all participants completed the BCFT and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Multinomial logistic regression, adjusted for age, sex, and education, revealed distinct BCFT profiles across dementia subtypes. Patients with CBD showed significantly lower copy scores than those with ADD (p = 0.006). The FTD-NFV group exhibited superior memory scores compared to all other dementia subtypes (p < 0.001). Poorer BCFT recognition performance was strongly associated with diagnoses of ADD (OR = 0.39, p = 0.012), FTD-BV (OR = 0.22, p = 0.025), and PDD (OR = 0.26, p < 0.001). Classification accuracy was highest for controls and ADD (sensitivity > 89%) but low for rarer subtypes (<25%), partly reflecting sample size limitations. In conclusion, the BCFT captures distinct visuospatial and memory profiles across dementia syndromes, supporting its potential utility in differential diagnosis, particularly for common subtypes such as ADD. Its simpler design may facilitate assessment in older adults, although validation in larger and more balanced cohorts is required for rarer dementias. Full article

Background/Objectives: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is common in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and significantly impacts quality of life. Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques have emerged as potential therapeutic interventions. This systematic review analyzes the current evidence regarding the efficacy of Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) on cognitive domains in patients with PD-MCI. Methods: A systematic search was conducted across the PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Medline Ultimate databases up to 20 November 2025. We included studies investigating the effects of NIBS compared to sham stimulation on neuropsychological outcomes in diagnosed PD-MCI patients. Results: Eight studies involving different stimulation protocols were included. Interventions primarily used TMS or tES targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Episodic memory and global cognition were the most responsive domains, assessed with specific neuropsychological scales. Findings for executive functions and attention were heterogeneous, while visuospatial abilities generally showed limited immediate response. Conclusions: NIBS represents a promising but low-certainty-evidence adjunctive therapy for PD-MCI, with improvements found in memory and global cognition. Future research should prioritize larger sample sizes, combined interventions (NIBS plus cognitive rehabilitation), and extended follow-ups to evaluate long-term neuroplasticity. Full article

Background: Aging is characterized by a decrease in olfactory, attentional, memory, language, and visuospatial/executive abilities. In this context, our study aimed to evaluate the potential effects of Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) and Carum carvi L. (caraway) essential oils (EOs) on aging. First, we assessed, in 402 participants, the age-related changes in olfactory functions (odor threshold, discrimination, and identification), gustatory perceptions (sweet, sour, salty, and bitter taste), cognitive functions (focusing on attention, memory, language, and visuospatial/executive functions), and their possible correlations with aging. To achieve this, olfactory function, gustatory perception, and cognitive abilities were evaluated in healthy participants across different age groups. Then, to evaluate the age-related decrease in trigeminal function (59 participants), we used rosemary and caraway EOs that contain carvone, limonene, and 1,8-cineole, all of which are considered typical trigeminal stimuli. Methods: Olfactory function was assessed with the Sniffin’ Sticks test, gustatory function by the Taste Strips test, and rosemary and caraway EOs by the ratings of odor pleasantness, intensity, and familiarity using a labeled hedonic Likert-type scale. Results: Olfactory function could be a potential early indicator of attentional, memory, language, and visuospatial/executive dysfunctions. Our data indicated that rosemary and caraway EOs were perceived without any significant decrease in odor pleasantness, intensity, and familiarity ratings in relation to aging. Conclusion: Our results suggest the potential bioactive effects of rosemary and caraway natural EOs as a new strategy to promote healthy aging. Full article

Background/Objectives: Driving performance and competence represent a complex functional domain that may be affected in some individuals with schizophrenia. This scoping review aimed to map existing evidence characterizing driving-related functioning by identifying the cognitive, pharmacological and functional factors that influence driving ability and by synthesizing findings from experimental, neurocognitive and population-based studies. Methods: A structured search of the PubMed, Scopus and ScienceDirect databases was performed in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines to identify studies published between 2015 and 2025 that examined cognitive, pharmacological and functional dimensions of driving in individuals with schizophrenia. Extracted data were narratively and thematically synthesized. Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria. Results: Findings clustered into three domains: cognitive, including attention, executive function, reaction time and visuospatial processing; pharmacological, encompassing drug comparisons, dosage, side effects and treatment stability; and functional, covering license status, driving participation, driving cessation, avoidance behaviors and self-regulation. Conclusions: This review integrates current evidence within a multidimensional and conditional framework, highlighting interactions between cognitive functioning, pharmacological factors, and compensatory self-regulation in individuals with schizophrenia. Understanding these interrelations may inform individualized fitness-to-drive evaluations and contribute to structured, context-sensitive interpretation of driving-related evidence in clinical and regulatory settings. Full article