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Brain Sciences
Volume 16
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10.3390/brainsci16030325
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Background:
Systematic Review

The Use of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques in Subjects with Parkinson’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review

by
Davide Mazzara
1,
Angelo Torrente
1,
Paolo Alonge
1,2,
Giulia Gerardi
1,
Anna Renda
1 and
Roberto Monastero
1,*
1
Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (Bi.N.D.), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
2
IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, 98124 Messina, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Brain Sci. 2026, 16(3), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16030325
Submission received: 21 February 2026 / Revised: 13 March 2026 / Accepted: 16 March 2026 / Published: 19 March 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation in Neurological Diseases and Neurorehabilitation)
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Abstract

Background/Objectives: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is common in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and significantly impacts quality of life. Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques have emerged as potential therapeutic interventions. This systematic review analyzes the current evidence regarding the efficacy of Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) on cognitive domains in patients with PD-MCI. Methods: A systematic search was conducted across the PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Medline Ultimate databases up to 20 November 2025. We included studies investigating the effects of NIBS compared to sham stimulation on neuropsychological outcomes in diagnosed PD-MCI patients. Results: Eight studies involving different stimulation protocols were included. Interventions primarily used TMS or tES targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Episodic memory and global cognition were the most responsive domains, assessed with specific neuropsychological scales. Findings for executive functions and attention were heterogeneous, while visuospatial abilities generally showed limited immediate response. Conclusions: NIBS represents a promising but low-certainty-evidence adjunctive therapy for PD-MCI, with improvements found in memory and global cognition. Future research should prioritize larger sample sizes, combined interventions (NIBS plus cognitive rehabilitation), and extended follow-ups to evaluate long-term neuroplasticity.
Keywords: Parkinson’s disease; PD; mild cognitive impairment; MCI; non-invasive brain stimulation; transcranial magnetic stimulation; TMS; transcranial electrical stimulation; tDCS; cognitive improvement Parkinson’s disease; PD; mild cognitive impairment; MCI; non-invasive brain stimulation; transcranial magnetic stimulation; TMS; transcranial electrical stimulation; tDCS; cognitive improvement

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MDPI and ACS Style

Mazzara, D.; Torrente, A.; Alonge, P.; Gerardi, G.; Renda, A.; Monastero, R. The Use of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques in Subjects with Parkinson’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review. Brain Sci. 2026, 16, 325. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16030325

AMA Style

Mazzara D, Torrente A, Alonge P, Gerardi G, Renda A, Monastero R. The Use of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques in Subjects with Parkinson’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review. Brain Sciences. 2026; 16(3):325. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16030325

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mazzara, Davide, Angelo Torrente, Paolo Alonge, Giulia Gerardi, Anna Renda, and Roberto Monastero. 2026. "The Use of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques in Subjects with Parkinson’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review" Brain Sciences 16, no. 3: 325. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16030325

APA Style

Mazzara, D., Torrente, A., Alonge, P., Gerardi, G., Renda, A., & Monastero, R. (2026). The Use of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques in Subjects with Parkinson’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review. Brain Sciences, 16(3), 325. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16030325

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