Search Results (71)

Background: Rapid evaporation limits the use of volatile natural products for pest control. This study aimed to develop a wet sol–gel silica formulation for sustained delivery of thymol, a volatile natural acaricide used to control Varroa destructor in honeybee colonies. Methods: Co-solvents were screened for thymol solubilization and compatibility with the silica network. The optimized formulation was evaluated for physical stability under ambient conditions and thymol release at 33 °C. Field trials in naturally infested Apis mellifera colonies assessed acaricidal efficacy under different temperature conditions in comparison with a commercial thymol formulation. Results: Triacetin, a non-volatile co-solvent, enabled the preparation of a homogeneous wet silica gel containing 25% w/w thymol, with no phase separation or thymol crystallization for at least 28 days. At 33 °C, the formulation reduced thymol volatilization compared with free thymol. Release was proportional to the square root of time, consistent with a diffusion-controlled mechanism within the triacetin-filled silica network. Estimated thymol depletion times were 62.5 ± 3.4 days for the formulation and 24.6 ± 2.6 days for free thymol. In summer trials, a single administration of 12.5 g thymol per hive yielded acaricidal efficacy comparable to that of a commercial formulation administered twice, with no macroscopically detectable adverse effects on colony health. Performance was reduced under cooler conditions. Conclusions: Wet sol–gel silica prolonged thymol release and showed potential to reduce administration frequency under summer field conditions. Temperature-dependent performance highlights the need to match release kinetics to environmental conditions to maintain acaricidal exposure. Full article

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a prevalent yet poorly understood functional gut disorder frequently associated with microbial dysbiosis, making microbiome-targeting interventions a promising management strategy. In this study, we evaluated the microbiome-modulating potential of three doses of triacetin (TA; ReBiome™; 100, 200 and 300 mg/day) and two finished formulations containing TA and/or tributyrin (TB): Active Biome™ (AB) and Bio Complete 3™ (BC3). Inulin served as a benchmark prebiotic. The validated ex vivo Systemic Intestinal Fermentation Research (SIFR^®) technology pipeline was applied using fecal microbiota from eight adults with IBS. TA dose-dependently increased short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) levels from 100 mg/day, significantly increasing acetate and butyrate while maintaining low gas formation. In addition to acetate and butyrate, AB and BC3 also promoted propionate while BC3 induced a particularly pronounced butyrate increase. Overall, both formulations induced stronger SCFA but milder gas increases than inulin. TA, AB and BC3 enriched IBS-depleted, butyrate-associated OTUs related to Faecalibacterium and Anaerobutyricum species. AB and BC3 increased microbial diversity (community modulation score (CMS)) by promoting Bifidobacteriaceae, Lachnospiraceae and Bacteroidaceae. Overall, TA and TA/TB-containing formulations promoted butyrate production, potentially helping mitigate IBS symptom severity by inducing a favorable fermentation profile with limited gas formation. Full article

The study explores the potential of thermoplastic biocomposites made from cellulose acetate, modified hemp seed hull particulate fillers and environmentally friendly plasticizer triacetin. Emphasizing the environmental advantages of utilizing natural materials, the research demonstrates the impact of different hemp hull chemical modification, such as alkali treatment or acetylation, on the mechanical properties of the resultant composites. Hemp seed hulls treated with 4–16% NaOH solution were studied using SEM imaging, FT-IR, XRD and chemical composition analyses. The study showed that alkaline treatment of hemp seed hull particles improved the mechanical properties of biocomposites, and the optimum concentration of NaOH solution ranged from 8 to 12%. The tensile modulus increased by 17–24%, and the tensile strength improved by 21–23% in biocomposites containing HH8 and HH12 fillers, while hardness increased by approximately 11–13%. It was also demonstrated that alkaline treatment of hemp seed hull fillers accelerated the biodegradation of biocomposite extrudates under aerobic conditions in a standard aqueous medium. Overall, the results demonstrated the potential of alkaline-treated hemp seed hulls as fillers in composite bioplastics. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging environmental contaminants detected not only in water, soil, and air but also in human biological samples. To date, three main exposure routes have been identified. Currently, the principal exposure routes examined in scholarly works are oral, inhalational, and dermal. This paper explores iatrogenic microplastic exposure (IME) as an underrecognized healthcare-associated source of exposure and suggests that, in certain clinical contexts involving invasive, device-mediated, or direct systemic contact, IME may be considered a possible fourth route of exposure. IME is the introduction of microplastics into the human body through medical interventions. A literature-based conceptual review was conducted focusing on the materials and additives used in pharmaceutical formulations, intravenous systems, and medical devices. Particular attention was given to polymer-based excipients and plasticizers (e.g., phthalates, PEG, triacetin) found in enteric drug coatings and infusion packaging. Findings suggest that polymer-derived particles may enter systemic circulation via intravenous fluids, implantable devices, or oral medications, especially under conditions of heat, pressure, or prolonged contact. Such materials, though deemed biocompatible, may contribute to nanoplastic load and chronic exposure risks. Vulnerable groups such as neonates, oncology patients, and ICU populations may face disproportionate exposure. This calls for re-evaluation of plastic use in medical practice, improved regulatory oversight of pharmaceutical excipients, and innovation in plastic-free biomedical materials. Integrating this route into toxicological and epidemiological frameworks will enrich our understanding of microplastic-related health risks and broaden the scope of environmental health strategies. Full article

Triacetin (TA) is a solvent commonly used in pharmaceutical and food applications, and as a plasticizer in bioplastics such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and cellulose acetate (CA). L-lactide is the monomer used in the ring-opening polymerization of PLA. The structure of TA emulsions stabilized by a cellulose hydrogel (CH) was imaged in this study. The emulsions were prepared by mechanical homogenization or a two-step process with subsequent high-pressure homogenization (HPH). The two-step process yielded smaller TA droplets and a more homogeneous CH dispersion. The images demonstrate that emulsion stabilization is due to CH particles adsorbed at the TA–water interface. The ester hydrolysis of TA and a lactide/TA solution by two industrially important lipases, from Candida rugosa (CRL) and Burkholderia cepacia (BCL), was investigated, assessing the effect of CH as an emulsion stabilizer. Mechanically homogenized TA emulsions were effectively hydrolyzed. Lactide was found to inhibit the enzymatic hydrolysis of TA. This inhibition was mitigated by CH for CRL-catalyzed hydrolysis but not for BCL catalysis. These results indicate a synergistic effect of CH stabilization on the interfacial activation of CRL. Thise effect may also be relevant for the biodegradation of bio-derived plastics and their fibrous cellulose composites. Full article

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a common gastrointestinal disorder, characterized by abdominal pain, altered bowel habits (diarrhea and/or constipation) and a dysbiosis of the gut microbiome. This dysbiosis is difficult to restore via fiber supplementation, which typically promotes gas production, potentially worsening IBS symptoms. We therefore studied how two novel products, triacetin (TA; REBiome™) and a mushroom blend (MB; Hōlistiq™), modulate the microbiome of IBS subjects (n = 8) using the ex vivo SIFR^® (Systemic Intestinal Fermentation Research) technology combined with a co-culture of epithelial/immune (Caco-2/THP-1) cells. First, the IBS microbiomes revealed large interpersonal variability and an IBS-associated dysbiosis. TA increased the beneficial metabolites acetate and butyrate (~Anaerobutyricum soehngenii, Mediterraneibacter_A butyricigenes, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii). Moreover, MB stimulated a wide range of gut microbes and additionally promoted propionate. Despite more strongly increasing total short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) levels, TA induced significantly less gas production than MB. Mechanistically, acetate with TA was derived from hydrolysis, a process that indeed does not induce gas production. Notably, both TA and MB enhanced gut barrier integrity (transepithelial electrical TEER), which is related to lower symptom severity in IBS patients. Overall, our findings highlight the product-specific microbiome modulation and potential of MB, TA or combinations thereof as dietary interventions for managing IBS symptom severity. Full article

Background: Skin mycoses affect approximately 10% of the global population, and the range of effective topical antifungal agents remains limited. Voriconazole (VRC) is a broad-spectrum triazole with proven efficacy against drug-resistant fungal infections. This study aimed to develop and optimize VRC-loaded microemulsion (ME) polymer gels (Carbopol^®-based) for cutaneous delivery. Selected formulations also contained menthol (2%) as a penetration enhancer and potential synergistic antifungal agent. Methods: A comprehensive screening was performed using pseudoternary phase diagrams to identify stable oil/surfactant/co-surfactant/water systems. Selected MEs were prepared with triacetin, Etocas™ 35, and Transcutol^®, then gelled with Carbopol^®. Formulations were characterized for pH, droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI), and viscosity. In vitro VRC release was assessed using diffusion cells, while ex vivo permeation and skin deposition studies were conducted on full-thickness human skin. Rheological behavior (flow curves, yield stress) and texture (spreadability) were evaluated. Antifungal activity was tested against standard strain of Candida albicans and clinical isolates including a fluconazole-resistant strain. Results: The optimized ME (pH ≈ 5.2; droplet size ≈ 2.8 nm) was clear and stable with both VRC and menthol. Gelation produced non-Newtonian, shear-thinning hydrogels with low thixotropy, favorable for topical application. In ex vivo studies, performed with human skin, both VRC-loaded gels deposited the drug in the epidermis and dermis, with no detectable amounts in the receptor phase after 24 h, indicating retention within the skin. Menthol increased VRC deposition. Antifungal testing showed that VRC-containing gels produced large inhibition zones against C. albicans, including the resistant isolate. The VRC–menthol gel exhibited significantly greater inhibition zones than the VRC-only gel, confirming synergistic activity. Conclusions: ME-based hydrogels effectively delivered VRC into the skin. Menthol enhanced drug deposition and demonstrated synergistic antifungal activity with voriconazole. Full article

This study evaluated chemical safety indicators in 38 commercial fish sauces from Thailand, South Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam sold in Taiwan. We quantified key nitrogenous compounds, biogenic amines, preservatives, and sodium levels, and further characterized metabolite profiles using untargeted ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) spectroscopy. Vietnamese fish sauces exhibited the highest total nitrogen content and lowest pH, indicating superior fermentation quality. Sodium concentrations ranged from 5037 to 12,637 mg/100 mL, and nearly 40% of products, particularly Thai and Korean, exceeded the permitted labeling tolerance (≤120%), highlighting substantial labeling inaccuracies. Preservative analysis revealed the unauthorized or excessive use of benzoates and sorbates in several samples, indicating regulatory non-compliance. Preservative analysis revealed that three of seven Taiwanese samples contained dehydroacetic acid above the regulatory limit of 1 g/kg, with sample C6 both mislabeled and showing the highest concentration (3.22 g/kg). Among the ten Vietnamese samples, two exceeded the permissible limits for combined preservative use, and samples D2–D5 contained triacetin, a non-listed food additive, in violation of current regulations. Notably, South Korean fish sauces contained histamine concentrations up to 539.85 ± 318.88 ppm, with several samples surpassing the Taiwanese regulatory limit of 400 ppm, raising significant food safety concerns. Metabolomic analysis differentiated products by country, with formic acid, acetate, branched-chain amino acids, and alanine contributing to the distinct profiles of Thai and Taiwanese fish sauces. Collectively, our results provide critical insights into the quality and safety of fish sauce products, highlighting the importance of monitoring biogenic amines and ensuring accurate labeling to comply with food safety regulations. Full article

In this study, a novel magnetic nanocatalyst based on tin ferrite (SnFe₂O₄) was synthesized via a chemical co-precipitation method and thoroughly characterized using XRD, SEM, TGA-DTG, BET, FTIR, and FTIR-pyridine techniques. The catalyst exhibited high crystallinity, a mesoporous structure with a specific surface area of 79.7 m²/g, and well-defined Lewis and Brønsted acid sites. Its catalytic performance was assessed in the esterification of glycerol with acetic acid to produce monoacetin (MAG), diacetin (DAG), and triacetin (TAG). A Box–Behnken experimental design was employed to evaluate the influence of temperature, catalyst loading, and the acetic-acid-to-glycerol molar ratio on product distribution and glycerol conversion. Statistical analysis and regression modeling revealed excellent predictive accuracy (R² > 0.99), confirming the robustness of the model. Optimal reaction conditions (110 °C, 2 wt.% catalyst, and AA/GLY ratio of 3.6) yielded a maximum glycerol conversion of 93.2% and a combined DAG and TAG yield of ~59.1%. These results demonstrate the high efficiency and selectivity of the synthesized SnFe₂O₄ catalyst, making it a promising candidate for sustainable glycerol valorization. Full article

Cellulose acetate (CA), commercially produced from natural cellulose, is one of the promising candidates to solve the microplastic issue. In this study, attempts were made to prepare CA microparticles by means of melt extrusion of incompatible polymer blends comprising CA with plasticizer (triacetin (TA)) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) followed by selective removable of TA and PVA. As implied by semi-theoretical equation previously established by Wu (Wu’s equation), particle size decreased with increasing shear rate or decreasing viscosity ratio of polymers. CA microparticles with a controlled size of 2–8 μm, narrow particle size distribution, and smooth surface were successfully obtained. Efforts were made to determine the numerical solution of Wu’s equation to compare them with observed particle size. To this end, interfacial tension between dispersed and matrix phases to be incorporated in the equation was determined by group contribution methods. The root mean squared error (RMSE) between the observed and calculated particle size was unsatisfactorily large, 4.46 μm. It was found that one of the possible reasons for the limited prediction accuracy was migration of TA from the dispersed to matrix phase affecting the viscosity ratio. Further efforts will be required to achieve a better prediction. Full article

Background/Objectives: The objective of this paper is to design a novel film-forming system (FFS) based on Eudragit^® E PO (EuE) polymeric solutions, differing in volatile solvents (i.e., isopropanol and ethanol) and plasticizers (i.e., tributylcitrate, glycerine, triacetin and PEG 400). Methods: The physicochemical and mechanical properties of the FFS and dried films were evaluated in terms of formation time, stickiness, T_g, tensile strength, break elongation and Young’s modulus. The in vitro skin permeation studies were conducted on formulations containing caffeine and testosterone. Results: The FFS, consisting of EuE and PEG400 in isopropyl alcohol and ethanol (80:20, v/v), exhibited rapid film formation within about 5 min and the dried film allowed a high skin permeability compared to other formulations due to the ability to increase the thermodynamic activity of both drugs. When triiodothyronine (T3) was loaded as a model of a very low soluble drug, tocopherol polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS) was added as a co-solvent and it allowed for the improvement of T3 retention in the skin. Conclusions: Among the formulative variables, the nature and the amount of plasticizer represent the most critical variables to obtain an EuE-based film with satisfying physical and biopharmaceutical properties. Full article

Background/Objectives: Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD), an inflammatory skin condition, is commonly treated with topical corticosteroids; however, long-term use of these drugs is associated with various risks, such as skin atrophy and steroid resistance. Triacetin (TA), a triglyceride metabolized to acetate, exerts anti-inflammatory affects by activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and suppressing mast cell degranulation. Here, we aimed to assess the immediate and long-term effects of TA on ACD suppression, focusing on AMPK activation, using a 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced rodent model. Methods: Various concentrations of TA were topically applied to rats with 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced dermatitis. Ear thickness was measured, and histological analysis was performed to assess the inflammation, mast cell infiltration, and degranulation in the established models. AMPK activation was analyzed via Western blotting, and TA degradation was assessed via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Dorsomorphin (an AMPK inhibitor) was used to evaluate the effects of AMPK on ACD. Results: TA significantly inhibited inflammation and mast cell degranulation in a dose-dependent manner, with 0.25 mmol/L showing the most potent effects. It also activated AMPK activation. Notably, AMPK inhibition reversed the effects of TA. Conclusions: Overall, TA exerted immediate and long-term anti-inflammatory effects via AMPK activation and inhibition of mast cell degranulation, showing potential as a non-steroidal therapeutic for ACD. Full article

Objectives: This study aims to create an innovative self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) suppository for ibuprofen (IBU) using semisolid extrusion (SSE) three-dimensional (3D) printing technology. Methods: Based on solubility studies and the ability to form a transparent microemulsion upon dilution, a selected oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant were utilized to prepare SMEDDS-3DPS containing IBU. The optimal formulation consisted of 10% Triacetin, 80% Gelucire 48/16, and 10% Tetraethylene glycol. SSE 3D printing was employed to create three different-sized suppositories with varying drug contents. These suppositories were assessed for their physicochemical properties, content uniformity, and dissolution profiles. Results: The prepared mixture exhibited suitable physical properties for printing, with nano-sized emulsion droplets providing a large surface area for improved drug absorption in the rectum. Characterization techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry, powder X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated that IBU was present in the formulation in an amorphous state. Additionally, in vitro dissolution tests demonstrated that SMEDDS-3DPS had a significantly higher initial dissolution rate compared with IBU powder. Conclusions: This research suggests that SMEDDS-3DPS, as a rectal IBU dosage form, can enhance the rectal bioavailability of IBU. It demonstrates the versatility of 3D printing as a novel manufacturing method for lipid-based suppositories and highlights the simplicity and adaptability of SSE 3D printing technology in producing customized suppositories tailored to individual patient needs, surpassing traditional methods. Full article

Biodiesel is a sustainable and renewable fuel generated from renewable resources, including vegetable oil or animal fats. It is thought to be a non-toxic fuel that degrades gradually and causes no harm to the environment. In the present study, a non-conventional supercritical method for industrial biodiesel production is investigated. The non-conventional method refers to a single-step interesterification reaction between triglycerides and methyl acetate resulting in methyl esters of fatty acids and triacetin as a secondary product. Process flowsheet modeling, using CHEMCAD chemical engineering software, was used as an investigation tool. The production capacity was set to 25,000 kg/h biodiesel. Methyl acetate requested in the biodiesel production is produced from methanol esterification with acetic acid using an intensified reactive distillation unit. Methanol, in turn, is obtained using synthetic gas derived from biomass as a raw material, the process representing a new method at the industrial level to solve problems related to the energy that is required, storage and disposal of residual materials, and pollution through the release of pollutants into the air. The methanol synthesis process is similar to the one based on natural gas, consisting of three main steps, namely: (i) synthesis gas production, followed by (ii) methanol production, and (iii) methanol purification. Acetic acid is an essential chemical product, generated in the proposed approach by a sustainable method with low energy consumption and low air emissions, more exactly methanol carbonylation. All the processes previously mentioned: (i) biodiesel production, (ii) methyl acetate production, (iii) acetic acid production, and (iv) methanol production were modeled and simulated, leading to the desired biodiesel productivity (e.g., 25,000 kg/h) with the obtained purity being higher than 99%. Relevant discussions regarding the design assumptions used, the simulation and validation results, as well as other technical issues (i.e., electricity and thermal energy consumption) for the system being simulated, are provided, leading to the conclusion that the proposed route is well suited for the desired application and can deliver significant results. The simulation outcomes have provided confidence in the feasibility and effectiveness of the chosen process design, making it a viable option for further development and implementation. Full article

A series of nanospherical-shaped silicates containing heteroatoms (Al, Zr or Ti) were successfully synthesized using tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) or silica colloids as a silicon source. These metallosilicate nanospheres were used as silicon nutrients to obtain silicalite zeolites with micro-mesoporosity and improved textural properties. The results demonstrated that TEOS acted as a suitable silicon source to produce amorphous silicates and a spherical-type zeolite architecture with Zr and Ti heteroatoms included in their framework, with preferable particle size and crystallinity. The surface functionality of the mesostructured nanospheres and zeolite silicates provide active centers for the esterification of glycerol with acetic acid (EG) reaction. The dispersion of Cu entities on the surface of the zeolites achieved high glycerol conversions selectively producing triacetin in comparison with Fe counterparts. Full article