Search Results (182)

In the Chan Buddhism koan (gong’an 公案) tradition, the act of “slaying the snake” functions as a signature gesture imbued with complex, historically layered cultural meanings. Rather than merely examining its motivations, this paper emphasizes tracing the semantic transformations that this motif has undergone across different historical contexts. It argues that “snake-slaying” operated variously as an imperial narrative strategy reinforcing ruling class ideology; as a form of popular resistance by commoners against flood-related disasters; as a dietary practice among aristocrats and literati seeking danyao (elixirs) 丹藥 for reclusion and transcendence; and ultimately, within the Chan tradition, as a method of spiritual cultivation whereby masters sever desires rooted in attachment to both selfhood and the Dharma. More specifically, first, as an imperial narrative logic, snake-slaying embodied exemplary power: both Liu Bang 劉邦 and Guizong 歸宗 enacted this discursive strategy, with Guizong’s legitimacy in slaying the snake deriving from the precedent set by Liu Bang. Second, as a folk strategy of demystification, snake-slaying acquired a moral aura—since the snake was perceived as malevolent force, their slaying appeared righteous and heroic. Finally, as a mode of self-cultivation among the aristocracy, snake-slaying laid the groundwork for its later internalization. In Daoism, slaying the snake was a means of cultivating the body; in Chan Buddhism, the act is elevated to a higher plane—becoming a way of cultivating the mind. This transformation unfolded naturally, as if predestined. In all cases, the internalization of the snake-slaying motif was not an overnight development: the cultural genes that preceded its appearance in the Chan tradition provided the fertile ground for its karmic maturation and discursive proliferation. Full article

This paper explores the perspectives of Master Taixu (太虛, 1890–1947) and Master Hsing Yun (星雲, 1927–2023) on the practice of the Buddhist Five Vehicles (五乘), particularly focusing on the relationship between the Vehicles of Men and Gods (人天乘) and the Bodhisattva Vehicle (菩薩乘). Master Taixu advocated “Buddhism for Human Life” (人生佛教), emphasizing the improvement of real life as the foundation for Buddhist practice in daily life. He proposed the principle of “following the practice and fruition of the Human Vehicle to cultivate the Mahāyāna path” (依人乘行果，趣修大乘行), suggesting a gradual progression from the human vehicle to the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva path. He introduced the concept of “The perfection of human character leads to Buddhahood” (人圓佛即成) and “Present Bodhisattva Practice” (今菩薩行), highlighting the importance of adapting Buddhist practice to contemporary society and actively engaging in social service. Master Hsing Yun’s advocacy of “Humanistic Buddhism” (人間佛教) emphasizes the diversity of practice, asserting that any action aligned with Buddhist teachings, beneficial to human well-being, and conducive to the welfare of all beings constitutes a form of practice, thereby expanding its definition. He elaborated on the Five Vehicles, viewing the Vehicle of Men and Gods as a preliminary stage, advocating a gradual progression towards the Bodhisattva Vehicle, ultimately culminating in Buddhahood. He proposed the principle of “undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset” (以出世的思想，做入世的事業), highlighting the importance of practicing the Bodhisattva path in everyday life. With “Buddha Light Pure Land” (佛光淨土) as the ultimate goal, he sought to integrate the essence of various Pure Lands traditions to achieve earthly peace and purification. Both masters highlight the importance of practicing Humanistic Buddhism, advocating for the application of the Bodhisattva practice in daily life, guiding all beings with compassion and wisdom, and actively engaging in society to address real-world issues, ultimately realizing a Humanistic Pure Land. However, their perspectives also differ: Master Taixu focused more on the theoretical construction and an exposition on the order of practice, whereas Master Hsing Yun placed greater emphasis on the diversity and flexibility of practice and the integration of Buddhist teachings into modern life. Full article

The spread of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia brought with it a wealth of Buddhist knowledge. Over time, Mongolian scholars and practitioners engaged with this knowledge and produced numerous works encompassing Buddhist learning, particularly in medicine. A prominent figure in this intellectual landscape is the Fourth Mindol Nomun Khan, Jambalchoijidanzanperenley (1789–1839), commonly known as Mindol Qutuɣtu (or Mindol Hutugtu). Despite being recognized for his remarkable contributions to the development of Mongolian medicine, considerable uncertainty has surrounded Mindol Qutuɣtu’s ethnic identity. This article aims to clarify Mindol Qutuɣtu’s ethnic origin and examine the broader medical context of his seminal work, The Treasury of All Precious Instructions (Man ngag rin chen ’byung gnas), highlighting the visionary concepts he presented. While the basis of Mindol Qutuɣtu’s work lies in Tibetan medicine, he boldly introduced treatment methodologies from other medical traditions, including Indian (Ayurvedic), Chinese, and European medicine, into the realm of Mongolian medicine. His insightful work reflects both intellectual ambition and practical occupation on increasing healing efficacy, as evidenced by his influential contributions to a combined and multicultural approach to medicine. Today, his innovative and inceptive contributions remain essential in understanding the historical development and current diverse character of Mongolian traditional medical practices. Full article

This paper aims to juxtapose bodhisattvas, awakened beings recognized in various Buddhist traditions and contemporary philosophies, as viewed through different lenses: as personified symbols, idealistic visions, mystical manifestations, naturalized sentient beings, and integral visions. Specific attention is given to the contrasting bodhisattva motivations and ideals articulated in Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism as well as secularized psychospiritual–philosophical Western conceptions in neurophysicalism (naturalized bodhisattva) and participatory spirituality and theory (integral bodhisattva). The paradox of the traditional bodhisattva is to liberate oneself and all sentient beings by ending suffering and to act compassionately while realizing emptiness (Skt., śūnyatā), though with different conceptions undergirding ultimate realization. The paradoxical nature of bodhisattvas is discussed in regard to illusional ideation, moral agency, mystical nature, idealized devotion, and naturalized form. The ethical underpinnings of the traditional Buddhist bodhisattva notions and non-Buddhist ethics of Western bodhisattva conceptions are critically examined. Finally, the Buddhist and secular morals of bodhisattvas are discussed in the context of the moral relativism of the Post-Truth culture in the United States. Full article

Inheriting a tradition of religious tolerance from the Inner Asian Steppe, the Mongol Yuan Empire elevated Buddhism to a pivotal role in unifying its multiethnic and culturally diverse domain, with Tengriist ideology serving as the political foundation for these Buddhist veneration policies. The ruling class of the Yuan dynasty practiced a complex interaction between religion and political unity through the institutionalization of the cult of writing, printing, and reading the Buddhist Canon. Specifically, the Yuan dynasty established specialized government offices to mobilize elites from Mongolian, Han Chinese, Goryeo, and other ethnic groups for the construction of a multilingual Buddhist Canon. They copied the scriptures with gold and silver ink in Chinese, Tibetan, Uyghur, and other languages. Participants in scripture copying were rewarded or granted official positions. In this way, they achieved the goal of enlisting local elites, the cohesion of the community’s beliefs, and enhanced the unity of the local elites. By subsidizing the writing and reading of Buddhist classics, the Yuan rulers succeeded in constructing a space of identity at the level of material culture and facilitated cultural interaction and political integration among various social groups such as the Mongols, ethnic groups, and Han Chinese. Through state-sponsored scripture carving and recitation activities, the Yuan rulers cultivated a shared identity in the material culture sphere, facilitating cultural exchange and political integration across the Mongolians, the Han Chinese, and other ethnic communities. However, the effectiveness of state unification was significantly constrained by the Mongolian rulers’ policy of ethnic segregation, central–local conflict, and the high concentration of social wealth in the Buddhist communities. Full article

Little is known about monthly home visits, a traditional Japanese Buddhist custom, wherein Buddhist priests visit their parishioners’ homes every month. This study aimed to explore this custom in terms of community health care. Qualitative data were collected from 14 Buddhist priests from various areas, followed by quantitative data collection on all the temples in the Osaka parish, where 486 questionnaires were distributed and 299 were retrieved. From the interviews, the functions of the monthly home visits were categorized into the following six categories: “finding incidents”, “preventing suicides”, “caring for older people”, “grief care”, “a peaceful passing”, and “connecting people”. Ninety-one percent of Buddhist priests made monthly home visits in the Osaka parish, with a median of 30.0 times per month. The median duration of their visits was 25.0 min. Those who carried out a high number of monthly home visits had more experience in: noticing dementia or physical deterioration; being asked for advice about a serious issue; dealing with the grief of bereavement; finding someone whom they were concerned about, but being unsure to what extent to get involved; finding someone in cardiopulmonary arrest or unconsciousness; and finding someone whom they were concerned about but not knowing where to ask for help. Full article

In 995, Yuanqing 源淸, a renowned master of the Tiantai school in China, requested the Japanese Buddhist community to critique his work, the Guanjing shu xianyao ji 觀經疏顯要記 (Xianyao ji). In response, Genshin 源信 and Kakuun 覚運, two prominent Japanese Tendai scholars, authored the Kan muryōju kyō sho kenyō ki hamon 観無量寿経疏顕要記破文 (Hamon) containing 21 critiques. This paper examines the historical context, content, and influence of the Hamon. The Hamon serves as an important example of Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchange, as it was the Chinese side that first initiated this intellectual engagement with the Japanese monks—and not the other way around. The analysis of the text indicates that the Hamon was not merely a critique but a platform for intellectual exchange. Genshin and Kakuun’s critiques reflect Silla’s Pure Land Buddhism, whereas Yuanqing’s Xianyao ji embodies the Chinese Tiantai commentary tradition on the Guan wuliangshou jing 觀無量壽經. Although not directly recorded in Chinese sources, some records suggest that the Hamon had reached China and potentially influenced Zhili’s 知禮 thought. This study aims to deepen our understanding of Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchanges during the late 10th and 11th centuries, illustrating what may be described as ‘Buddhism on a countercurrent.’ Full article

Born the seventh son of a Louisiana preacher in 1942 and becoming the co-founder of the Black Panther Party in 1966, Huey P. Newton evidenced a complex, changing, and contradictory synthesis of faith and facts until his death in 1989. Focusing on 1960s’ U.S. Black Nationalism as materialist, Maoist, and Marxist in its appeals to objectivity, rationality, and positivist science, some scholars have presented Black Nationalist contempt for religion as pacifying and counter-revolutionary. Conversely, others have focused on the religious-like nature of formally secular 1960s’ Black Nationalism, even framing it as a “form of piety” and a “politics of transcendence”. Between these bookends, the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton have simultaneously been characterized as both “anti-religious” and as possessing an “innate spirituality”. I attempt to reconcile these divergent interpretations through an analysis of Newton’s worldviews (culled from his graduate school papers, published articles and books, and speeches and interviews). Newton frequently described aspects of the human condition as partially spiritual and in so doing, regularly married dialectical materialist variants of anti-capitalism, Black Nationalism, and ethno-racial self-determinism with “mystical” and theological aesthetics, concepts, stories, and styles from a variety of religious and philosophic traditions. These “paradoxical pieties” included, but were not limited to, the embrace and critique of spiritual existentialism and transcendentalism; deism and theosis; Christian hermeneutics; Zen Buddhism; and Vedic and Pranic Hinduism. Full article

Traditional studies on Chinese Buddhism have largely relied on printed canons from the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Goryeo dynasties. However, recent discoveries of Dunhuang and Turfan manuscripts, along with growing recognition of Nihon kosha issaikyō (Japanese Ancient Manuscript Canons), have expanded the scope of Buddhist textual research. Despite their significance, Japanese manuscript Buddhist canons remain underexplored, particularly in relation to their textual lineages and connections to Tang-dynasty texts. This study examines Nihon kosha issaikyō through a philological analysis of the Shisong lü (Ten Recitation Vinaya), assessing textual variants, structural patterns, and transmission histories. By situating Nihon kosha issaikyō within the broader East Asian Buddhist tradition, this research clarifies their role in preserving alternative textual lineages beyond standardized printed canons. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of Buddhist textual transmission, canon formation, and the interplay between manuscript and printed traditions in China, Korea, and Japan. This study highlights the historical processes that shaped East Asian Buddhist canons and offers new insights into their adaptation and preservation across different cultural contexts. Full article

The issue of transcendence is a pivotal philosophical proposition in the contemporary development of Humanistic Buddhism, continuously provoking academic debates within the fields of religious studies and Buddhist scholarship. In response to the controversy over whether Humanistic Buddhism possesses transcendence, Master Hsing Yun (星雲大師) addresses this question through three theoretical dimensions: constructing spiritual transcendence at the level of faith, achieving inner transcendence at the level of consciousness, and realizing a creative transcendence that integrates tradition and modernity within a historical context. Through the tripartite interaction of the Buddhist practice system, worldly engagement, and the philosophy of the Middle Way (中道), individuals can transcend their own lives and attain the perfection of their inherent Buddha-nature, ultimately achieving a unity of humanity and transcendence. Full article

This study examines the role of Buddhism in the vitality of local languages as an asset of indigenous traditions, focusing on two geographically disconnected minority language communities: Tai Phake in the state of Assam, India, and Wutun (Ngandehua) in the Qinghai province of China. The investigation addresses various factors related to the ecology of speech communities discussed in connection with religion. The data are based on longitudinal observations from personal fieldwork in the respective locations over the past two decades. The descriptive and comparative analysis applies an ecology-based typology of minority language situations to assess the contribution of individual factors in three different domains (speakers, language, and setting) to the vitality of the Tai Phake and Wutun languages. The results reveal several areas in which Buddhism as a cultural authority has noticeably contributed to language preservation. The effects of Buddhism are considered significant in enhancing demographic stability, social setting, attitudes, awareness of historical legacy, education in monasteries, and sustainable economics. In contrast, religion does not account for the vitality of these local languages in situations where a low degree of dialectal variation does not complicate intergenerational transmission of language, the minority status of the speech community is unique, and space for language in the institutionalised domain of use is insufficiently provided. Full article

Yinyuan Longqi 隱元隆琦 was a pivotal figure in Sino–Japanese cultural exchange. His journey to Japan to propagate Buddhism, founding of the Ōbaku sect (Huangbo zong 黃檗宗), emphasis on the orthodoxy of his Zen teachings, and crafting of an “authentic” identity profoundly influenced Japanese Buddhism and culture. While existing studies have predominantly explored the socio–historical dimensions of Yinyuan’s construction of “authenticity” (benzhen 本真), his extensive corpus of Zen verses remains understudied. By tracing the “Huangbo” (Ōbaku) 黃檗 imagery in his writings, this study addresses how Yinyuan constructed “authenticity” through his poetic works. Before his journey to Japan, Yinyuan employed “Huangbo” imagery to articulate his personal situation and sentiment, elevating it into a symbolic representation of inner “authenticity”. In the early days after Yinyuan went to Japan, driven by the dual imperatives of promoting orthodox Zen and responding to Japanese expectations of Zen origins, he intricately intertwined “Huangbo” with Zen doctrines, transforming the imagery into a marker of “authenticity” that embodied both orthodox Zen philosophy and sectarian identity. Following the establishment of Kyoto’s Mount Huangbo, Yinyuan further reshaped the “Huangbo” imagery into a trans-geographical and cultural symbol of sectarian dharma lineage, thereby ensuring the spiritual continuity of “authenticity” across Chinese and Japanese Huangbo traditions. This process not only reflects the cross-cultural transmission of Buddhism from China to Japan but also serves as a critical lens for examining the interplay between globalization and localization in religious development. Full article

This article compares the precept revival movements in Korean and Japanese Buddhism in the early modern period. It examines how monks in both countries, in particular, in the Korean Hyujŏng lineage and the Japanese Shingon sect, restored and utilized the precept tradition to re-establish Buddhist identity in the midst of rapid political and social change. Although in different ways, Buddhism in the early modern period in both countries experienced state control and an anti-Buddhist milieu, making it difficult to maintain its religious identity. Various efforts were made to overcome this hardship, the most prominent of which was the precept revival movement. In the early 19th century, in Chosŏn Korea, Taeŭn and Paekp’a sought to restore the bhikṣu lineage by overhauling the bhikṣu ordination rituals through the “reception of the precepts through an auspicious sign” and “the reception of the ten wholesome precepts”, respectively, while in mid-to-late 18th-century Japan, the Shingon master Jiun advocated a return to the teachings of Śākyamuni through the Shōbō-ritsu movement. While both countries focused on precept revival as a way to solidify Buddhist religious identity, Korea emphasized the restoration of the bhikṣu lineage, while Japan, especially in the Shingon-shū, emphasized a return to the fundamental teachings of the Buddha. These differences stem from the unique historical backgrounds of the two countries and the distinctive developments of their Buddhist traditions. By comparing the precept revival movements in both countries, this study examines how different precept traditions influenced the identity of East Asian Buddhism in the early modern period and how these efforts have been fundamental in maintaining Buddhist orthodoxy into the modern era. Full article

Having adopted, appropriated, and altered Indian forms of Buddhism, various schools of Chinese Buddhist thought inherited and transformed essential orientations of both Buddhism and traditional Chinese philosophy insofar as it exhibits a tendency toward seeking universality in its understanding of the world. Within the works of prominent figures and schools such as Sengzhao and the Tiantai school, Huayan, the Consciousness-Only school, and Chan Buddhism, Chinese Buddhist thought integrates the diversity of phenomena through the notion of a unifying “mind-consciousness”. This approach creates the framework for understanding the relationship between humans and all things based on the comprehensive nature of consciousness. Given this foundation, Chinese Buddhist thought places a high value on the equality of all beings, advocates for dismantling distinctions between individuals and the world, and transcends the distinctions of reality to pursue universal unity. By dissolving the boundaries of existence and non-existence, the self and things, and the individual ego, this philosophical outlook lays a cognitive foundation for eradicating the “discriminating mind” in daily life and offers insights into overcoming separatism and isolationism. The Chinese Buddhist pursuit of universal consistency, which is simultaneously of this world yet transcendent, reflects Buddhism’s profound concern for humanity’s shared destiny. Full article

As an extension of the Problem of Evil, the Problem of Hell poses further difficulties for the theodicy and eschatology of Western theist religions. This Problem of Hell, which presumes a transcendent divine entity, is, however, less applicable to an Eastern religious tradition like Buddhism. As a non-theist religion, Buddhism is not centered on an overpowering God but is predicated on the doctrine of kamma. Hell in Buddhism is conceived as one of the rebirth realms in the saṃsāra where beings are driven to by the force of their kamma. This kamma-based conception of hell has its own unique features, especially with regard to retribution and salvation. It also has a unique problem. As the doctrine of kamma is commonly understood as an endorsement of free will, it appears to conflict with another Buddhist doctrine, namely that of dependent origination, which is often interpreted as suggesting a deterministic worldview. This tension between doctrines of kamma and dependent origination is also known as the Buddhist free will problem, as it involves the controversy over the metaphysics of free will. Based on the Pāli scriptures, the essay tries to propose a compatibilist solution to the problem, defending kamma for the Buddhist hell. Full article