Search Results (224)

Encapsulation and coating approaches have become important tools in modern food systems for improving the stability, functionality, sensory quality, processability, and controlled delivery of bioactive and sensitive food ingredients. Their widespread adoption has enabled the incorporation of functional compounds into diverse food products while enhancing product quality, shelf life, and manufacturing performance. However, successful implementation depends not only on the encapsulation or coating strategy itself but also on the interactions among ingredient properties, carrier materials, food matrices, processing conditions, storage environments, and intended release behavior. Whereas recent reviews have mainly focused on specific encapsulation methods, carrier systems, industrial implementation, sensory functions, or regulatory aspects separately, this review integrates scientific publications and patent literature to examine method and system selection from food-engineering, formulation, processing, and industrial perspectives. Conventional processing and formulation approaches, including spray drying, freeze drying, coacervation, ionic gelation, emulsion-based encapsulation, and fluidized-bed coating, remain widely used, while established carrier systems such as liposomes and cyclodextrin inclusion complexes continue to support ingredient protection and delivery. Emerging carrier systems, including nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and hybrid multilayer structures, together with fabrication methods such as electrospraying and microfluidics, provide greater control over carrier architecture and release behavior but continue to face challenges related to manufacturing scalability, production throughput, storage stability, production cost, regulatory acceptance, and validation under industrial processing conditions. Although patent activity demonstrates continuing development of processing methods and carrier designs, patent publications alone do not establish commercial manufacture, market adoption, or industrial implementation. Across food applications, encapsulation improves ingredient protection, oxidation stability, sensory quality, dispersibility, controlled release, and process compatibility. By integrating research evidence with patent literature, this review further shows that recent progress is characterized primarily by application-driven refinement of carrier systems and fabrication methods rather than replacement of established approaches. Pet food is discussed as a representative specialized food application illustrating how encapsulation and coating strategies require adaptation to product format, processing severity, storage stability, palatability, and species-specific digestive requirements. Overall, this review highlights application-oriented food-engineering principles for selecting encapsulation methods and carrier systems suitable for industrial food applications. Full article

Opuntia ficus-indica flowers represent a valuable source of phenolic compounds with promising antioxidant properties, although their application is limited by the poor stability and bioavailability of these bioactives. This study aimed to identify the most effective extraction method for maximizing polyphenol recovery and to develop a spray-dried microparticulate delivery system capable of improving the stability and release of the freeze-dried extract. Different extraction techniques were compared by determining total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity and individual phenolic compounds by HPLC-UV. Among the investigated methods, decoction proved to be the most efficient, exhibiting the highest TPC (27.59 mg GAE/g), antioxidant capacity (DPPH: 0.53 mmol TEAC/100 g d.e.; ABTS: 0.79 mmol TEAC/100 g d.e.; FRAP: 43.18 mg Fe²⁺/100 g d.e.) and the greatest overall recovery of polyphenols. HPLC analysis identified quercetin as the predominant flavonoid (57.07 mg/g), followed by kaempferol rhamnoside and quercetin-3-rhamnoside. The selected extract was successfully encapsulated by spray-drying, producing spherical microparticles (MPs) with a process yield of 64%. SEM, DSC and FT-IR analyses confirmed suitable morphology and enhanced thermal stability. In vitro dissolution and ex vivo permeation studies demonstrated a faster initial release and enhanced early quercetin permeation of MPs across porcine colon mucosa compared with the freeze-dried extract. These findings highlight spray-dried microparticles as a promising strategy for improving stability, bioaccessibility and nutraceutical potential of O. ficus-indica flower polyphenols. Full article

Background: Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a progressive lung disease with limited therapies. Oral Pirfenidone (PFD), an approved anti-fibrotic, shows poor lung bioavailability and significant toxicity. S-Allylmercapto-N-acetylcysteine (ASSNAC) has been demonstrated to possess significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Methods: In this study, dry powder inhaler formulations (DPIs) co-encapsulating ASSNAC and PFD in liposomes are reported. The formulation was prepared via spray freeze-drying (SFD) using L-leucine as both a cryoprotectant and a surface morphology modifier. The interfacial enrichment of L-leucine during atomization and freezing created a hydrophobic, corrugated surface that lowered particle surface energy, prevented liquid/solid bridge formation, and reduced hygroscopicity. Results: The resulting liposomal powders exhibited optimal aerosol performance: fine particle fraction (FPF) of 61.08% ± 2.45% and mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of 2.22 ± 0.11 µm. Cellular studies demonstrated that dual-loaded liposomes were efficiently taken up by Beas-2B and HFL-1 cells, with no cytotoxicity (cell viability > 90%) and negligible hemolysis. In the TGF-β1-induced in vitro fibrosis model, the combined treatment exerted prominent therapeutic effects. This regimen preserved normal epithelial morphology, accelerated wound repair, suppressed fibroblast invasiveness, and lowered the expression levels of Collagen I, Collagen III, and α-SMA. In bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis rats, inhaled ASSNAC + PFD liposomal powder markedly relieved lung tissue injury and collagen accumulation. It restored redox balance and lowered pulmonary TGF-β1, hydroxyproline and collagen III levels. The formulation blocked TGF-β1 signaling and fibrotic gene expression. Conclusions: Pulmonary administration avoids oral pirfenidone-induced liver and stomach toxicity. Collectively, the ASSNAC + PFD co-encapsulated liposomal dry powder produced by SFD represents a safe and efficacious therapeutic strategy for PF. Full article

Probiotics have received widespread attention due to their beneficial effects on human health. However, ensuring their viability and functionality during processing, storage, and gastrointestinal transit can be challenging. Encapsulation technology represents a key strategy to address these issues. Among available encapsulation technologies, polysaccharide-based systems have garnered growing interest. This review provides a detailed overview of the characteristics and applications of various polysaccharides, as well as representative strategies for their modification. In addition, the formulation of polysaccharide-based composite wall materials combined with additional polysaccharides, proteins, or metal ions is discussed as an effective strategy for enhancing the stability of encapsulated probiotics Encapsulation techniques, including extrusion, emulsification, spray drying, freeze drying, electrospraying, electrospinning, and layer-by-layer assembly, are critical for probiotic viability, storage stability and release behavior. The review also considers emerging approaches, such as 3D bioprinting and microfluidics, and applications in dairy products, including impacts on product quality and functional properties. Overall, the review describes the application potential of polysaccharide-based encapsulation and future research directions for dairy products and other functional foods. Full article

Fruit- and vegetable-derived postbiotic powders represent promising functional ingredients; however, systematic evaluations of different drying technologies and drying aids for these products remain limited. In this study, Opuntia ficus-indica fruit juice was fermented using Lacticaseibacillus paracasei HNU502 and subsequently inactivated to prepare postbiotic broth, which was further processed into powder by vacuum freeze-drying and spray-drying with maltodextrin and β-cyclodextrin as drying aids. Results showed that the drying process and carrier formulation jointly influenced the structural, sensory, and antioxidant characteristics of cactus postbiotic powders. Vacuum freeze-drying combined with β-cyclodextrin exhibited favorable structural and sensory properties under the tested conditions, whereas spray-drying combined with β-cyclodextrin showed favorable antioxidant performance. Additionally, β-cyclodextrin-containing formulations showed favorable powder characteristics and functional properties under the tested conditions, although the effects were influenced by both carrier formulation and drying process. Among the tested formulations, vacuum freeze-drying combined with β-cyclodextrin exhibited the highest crystallinity (77.4%) and distinct structural features, as characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses. The spray-dried β-cyclodextrin formulation achieved the highest sensory score (74.75), while exhibiting high radical scavenging activity. DSC analysis indicated that all formulations maintained thermal stability, with no exothermic degradation observed below 180 °C. These findings suggest that β-cyclodextrin-assisted drying strategies can influence the structural and functional characteristics of cactus postbiotic powders and that drying strategy selection should consider specific product quality requirements and processing feasibility. Full article

This study aimed to optimize the spray-drying (SD) process for aquafaba and compare the physical and techno-functional properties of the resulting powder with those of its freeze-dried (FD) counterpart. A Box–Behnken design was employed to evaluate the effects of inlet air temperature (150–190 °C), air speed (3.5–4.3 m/s), and feed flow rate (0.3–0.5 L/h) on 14 quality responses. The optimized SD conditions were determined to be an inlet air temperature of 189 °C, an air speed of 4.2 m/s, and a feed flow rate of 0.3 L/h. Validation experiments demonstrated that the developed models had high predictive capacity, with only a small discrepancy (0.56–5.88%) between the predicted and experimental values. Comparative analysis showed that the optimized SD powder had significantly lower moisture content (2.47%) and water activity (0.18) than the FD powder (3.51% and 0.34, respectively), indicating superior storage stability. In addition, the SD powder exhibited greater whiteness (82.37), higher water solubility (88.44%), and substantially greater foaming capacity (266.67%) than the FD sample (243.33%). Although the FD powder demonstrated better wettability and water absorption capacity because of its porous structure, FTIR spectroscopy and protein secondary structure analysis confirmed that SD preserved the functional integrity of aquafaba. Specifically, SD induced a transition from disordered random-coil structures to more ordered β-sheet and β-turn configurations, thereby improving foaming performance. Overall, these findings indicate that optimized spray-drying is a highly efficient and industrially scalable alternative to freeze-drying for producing functional aquafaba powder for use as a plant-based egg substitute. Full article

The replacement of synthetic dyes with natural food colorants has become a priority for the food industry, as emerging evidence from in vitro and animal studies on the potential neurotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of certified dyes converges with consumer pressure for clean-label formulations. Yet despite this, the industrial uptake of natural pigments remains uneven, held back by stability limitations that differ considerably from one pigment class to the next and from one food matrix to another. This review covers the chemistry, industrial applications, and stabilization approaches of the main natural colorant groups: carotenoids, anthocyanins, betalains, chlorophylls, curcuminoids, phycocyanin, and genipin-derived pigments, with particular attention to the physicochemical reasons behind their instability and the practical tools available to address it. Among stabilization strategies, spray-drying microencapsulation with composite protein–polysaccharide wall materials is often the most scalable and cost-effective option, whereas freeze drying may be preferable for high-value pigments or applications in which maximum pigment retention is the priority. Whether the encapsulating matrix remains in a glassy or rubbery state stands out as a key factor governing oxidative degradation across all pigment categories, which makes water activity management a non-negotiable element of any serious formulation effort. Anthocyanins require more than physical encapsulation alone: copigmentation and structural approaches such as acylation and pyranoanthocyanin formation hold degradation routes that no shell material can prevent on its own. For hydrophobic pigments like carotenoids and curcuminoids, lipid-based delivery systems consistently deliver higher bioaccessibility than aqueous or dried formats. pH control, antioxidant incorporation, and modified atmosphere packaging add a useful but ultimately incomplete third line of defense. One development worth attention is the use of pH-responsive pigments in biopolymer packaging films, where color instability, long treated as a drawback, becomes a real-time indicator of food freshness. Bridging the remaining performance gap with synthetic dyes will call for stabilization platforms that tackle the molecular, physical, and environmental dimensions of degradation together, built around the particular chemistry of each pigment and the demands of each application. Full article

Scientific interest in probiotics continues to grow as accumulating evidence links microbiome modulation to improvements in host health. Probiotics are usually described as live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the host. However, products are exposed to multiple stresses during manufacturing, storage, and gastrointestinal transit. Among these, drying, often employed to stabilize powders and extend shelf life, can impose high viability loss. This review synthesizes recent advances in drying process engineering, formulation design, and viability assessment aimed at improving survival during drying. Freeze drying remains the most widely used technology, while alternative approaches, including conventional spray drying, vacuum drying, spray freeze drying, and electrostatic spray drying, are increasingly evaluated. Protective strategies are discussed, encompassing sublethal conditioning (stress adaptation), optimization of operating parameters, incorporation of excipients, and encapsulation. Lastly, methods for viability assessment are also compared, contrasting culture-dependent assays (e.g., plate enumeration) with culture-independent techniques such as flow cytometry and PCR-based approaches. However, across studies, performance is highly strain-specific, and optimization often entails trade-offs among immediate survival, cycle time, powder stability, and downstream functionality. Full article

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum is one of the most studied probiotic organisms due to its adaptability, gastrointestinal tolerance, antimicrobial activity, and health-promoting properties. However, the survival and efficacy of this probiotic can be significantly reduced during processing, storage, and gastrointestinal transit, limiting its effectiveness in food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical products. Synbiotic formulations, which are prepared by combining probiotics with prebiotics, have emerged as a promising approach to enhance the survival and efficacy of probiotics. In this context, encapsulation technologies play a crucial role in protecting probiotic cells from environmental and physiological stresses and in enabling controlled release at targeted sites within the gastrointestinal tract. This review describes recent developments in encapsulation strategies for L. plantarum-based synbiotic formulations, including traditional methods such as spray drying, freeze drying, extrusion and emulsion-based systems, as well as emerging methods such as nanoencapsulation and hydrogel-based delivery systems. The properties of commonly used encapsulating materials, and functional applications in food, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products are also described. Furthermore, current challenges and future prospects are also highlighted. Overall, encapsulation represents an effective strategy to improve the stability, delivery and therapeutic potential of L. plantarum-based synbiotic formulations. Full article

Background: Pulmonary drug delivery represents a promising approach for the potential localised treatment of respiratory of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, the efficient delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs remains challenging due to limited solubility and inadequate aerodynamic performance. This study aimed to develop and characterise inhalable dry powder formulations of zinc diethyldithiocarbamate (Zn(DDC)₂) complexes with hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) and sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin (SBE-β-CD) for potential pulmonary administration. Methods: Formulations were prepared by freeze-drying and spray-drying, with leucine incorporated at 0%, 5%, and 10% w/w. Formulations were prepared via freeze-drying and spray-drying with leucine incorporation (0%, 5% and 10% w/w) to evaluate their physicochemical properties, flowability and aerodynamic performance. Results: Spray-dried formulations exhibited significantly lower densities (as low as 1.03 ± 0.71 g/cm³), enhanced flowability, improved aerosolisation and higher fine particle fraction (FPF) values (up to 40.12 ± 0.60%) compared to freeze-dried powders (20.03 ± 2.79%). The incorporation of leucine further reduced powder density down to 0.72 ± 0.34 g/cm³ and increased surface corrugation as shown in SEM images, improving aerosolisation performance, with FPF values up to 76.77 ± 1.18%. Next Generation Impactor (NGI) analysis confirmed that leucine-containing formulations exhibited a greater proportion of particles within the respirable aerodynamic diameter range (1–5 μm), suggesting suitability for deep lung deposition. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that spray-dried Zn(DDC)₂–cyclodextrin powders, particularly those modified with 10% leucine, offer excellent potential for pulmonary delivery in NSCLC therapy. Further in vivo studies are warranted to evaluate therapeutic efficacy and safety. Full article

Background/Objectives: Microcapsules are particles 1–1000 µm in size, with a core containing the active substance (in liquid, solid, or gaseous state) and a shell typically composed of natural, synthetic, or semi-synthetic polymers. Although natural polymer-based microcapsules have applications in food, cosmetics, and other industries, this review primarily focuses on their role in pharmaceutical drug delivery. In recent years, natural macromolecules have gained increasing attention as coating materials due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, mucoadhesive properties, and ability to enable controlled and targeted drug release. Based on previous research, this review provides an overview of microcapsules, the most common microencapsulation methods, natural polymers used as wall materials, and their pharmaceutical applications across different routes of administration. Results: By encapsulating active ingredients, microcapsules enhance their bioavailability, prolong their release, protect them, enable targeted delivery, and mask unpleasant tastes and odors. Among the most commonly used microencapsulation techniques are physical methods (spray drying, spray cooling, solvent evaporation, spray coating, and freeze drying) and physicochemical methods (coacervation). Natural polymers, particularly polysaccharides and proteins, have been successfully used in oral, topical, transdermal, pulmonary, and colon-targeted drug delivery systems, as well as for the stabilization and delivery of peptides, proteins, probiotics, and vaccines. Conclusions: Proper selection of microencapsulation technique depends on the properties of the polymer and the core material. Natural polymers represent versatile pharmaceutical excipients owing to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, safety, mucoadhesive behavior, and ability to provide controlled and targeted drug delivery. Their successful application with a wide range of therapeutic agents and administration routes highlights their considerable potential for the development of advanced drug delivery systems. Full article

Polysaccharide-based microparticles have emerged as suitable carriers and stabilizers of active substances, showing potential to stabilize bioactive compounds during storage and gastrointestinal digestion, thereby improving their bioaccessibility and bioavailability. This narrative review provides a comprehensive overview of the main polysaccharides employed as wall materials, including starch, maltodextrin, alginate, pectin, inulin, chitosan, and gum Arabic, and discusses how structural interactions and physicochemical properties can positively influence the microencapsulation of polyphenols and pigments. The principles and main findings of the main microencapsulation techniques, including spray-drying, freeze-drying, extrusion, emulsification, and coacervation, are briefly described. Polysaccharides can entrap both hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds through physical interactions, forming a barrier around the nucleus or binding to the bioactive compound. Intermolecular binding between polysaccharides in the wall matrix, polyphenols, and pigments in the nucleus can confer up to 90% encapsulation efficiency, primarily governed by hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions. The mixture of wall polysaccharides in the microparticles synthesis favors the encapsulation solubility, storage stability, bioaccessibility, and bioactivity of the microencapsulate compounds. Clinical trials regarding the bioefficacy of polyphenols and pigments loaded in polysaccharide microparticles are scarce and require further evidence to reinforce the use of this technology. Full article

Spray-freeze-drying technology has gained considerable interest worldwide. However, the high energy consumption and lengthy process duration have hindered its further development. The primary drying stage accounts for the largest proportion of both the total energy consumption and process duration. To improve the energy utilization efficiency of the drying stage, a mathematical model describing the drying stage was established. The obtained drying time and maximum product temperature were selected to represent the drying efficiency and the risk of failure, respectively. The design space of the drying stage was then constructed. The results show that the mathematical model gives an accurate description of the drying stage, and increasing the shelf temperature and decreasing the chamber pressure would be beneficial for improving drying efficiency but unfavorable for reducing the risk of failure. In addition, the drying efficiency shows higher sensitivity to the change in the operating conditions compared with the risk of failure. Moreover, the packing porosity is found to affect the design space. A lower packing porosity is found to expand the design space, allowing for a wider range of operating conditions. This study provides insights into the drying process and supports the optimization of operating parameters. Full article

Children are often underserved by adult-oriented oral medicines, leading to off-label use and dosage-form manipulation that may compromise dosing accuracy. This review summarises recent advances in paediatric orodispersible tablets (ODTs), focusing on manufacturing technologies, superdisintegrants, taste masking, and in vitro disintegration testing. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidance and a protocol registered with the International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols (registration number INPLASY2025110022), we searched PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Scopus, and Google Scholar for experimental studies on paediatric-relevant ODT formulation and evaluation. Two reviewers screened studies and extracted data on manufacturing methods, excipients, disintegration/dissolution testing, and key outcomes. Risk of bias was assessed using a six-domain framework. Overall, 65 studies met the inclusion criteria for this review. Direct compression was the dominant method, with freeze-drying, sublimation, spray-drying, nanoparticle-in-tablet systems, and semi-solid extrusion/3D printing also reported. Crospovidone, croscarmellose sodium, and sodium starch glycolate were the most common superdisintegrants, while natural and co-processed disintegrants showed promise as cost-effective alternatives. Disintegration was usually assessed using pharmacopoeial methods, with some modified set-ups to better simulate oral conditions. Paediatric ODT development is advancing rapidly. Broader translation requires harmonised disintegration testing, age-stratified acceptability reporting, and GMP-ready workflows, alongside benchmarking of superdisintegrants and attention to dose flexibility, packaging, and affordability. Full article

The medical field now uses mRNA therapeutics to deliver fast programmable treatment options through versatile vaccination platforms. The worldwide adoption of mRNA therapeutics faces a major obstacle because these molecules require extreme cold storage and transportation systems. mRNA stability establishes a fundamental scientific and industrial challenge which requires researchers to unite formulation design with process control and material engineering for cold-chain independence. Current knowledge about RNA hydrolysis and lipid oxidation and water-mediated degradation is combined with new methods for solid-state stabilization through lyophilization and spray-freeze-drying and thin-film technologies. Mechanism such as vitrification, water replacement and excipient RNA interactions are assessed to establish the fundamental chemical properties needed for extended product stability. Advanced mRNA development strategies are also examined, including self-amplifying and circular RNA structures and nano-glass and metal–organic frameworks and artificial intelligence-based predictive design for creating stable mRNA formulations at room temperature. This review examines manufacturing and regulatory and logistical obstacles which affect real-world implementation of mRNA therapeutics through assessments of production scale and product quality tests and packaging strength and tropical environment testing. The combination of research findings presents a path to develop mRNA medicines which maintains their effectiveness when stored at 25 °C or above, thus enabling worldwide access to RNA-based treatments. The development of mRNA into a durable therapeutic platform requires scientists to merge molecular research with process development and regulatory standardization. Full article