Search Results (256)

Climate change is intensifying winters in temperate regions, posing a serious threat to Apis mellifera health. The gut microbiome, a distinct community of core bacterial species, is central to overwintering success by supporting immune function, nutrient assimilation, and pathogen resistance, but is highly sensitive to environmental stressors such as cold temperatures and dietary shifts. Stress-induced perturbations can reshape the composition and relative abundance of the gut microbiome in honey bees, leading to adverse effects on host health, physiological functions, and overwinter survival. Cold temperatures and additional stressors further destabilize the microbiome, compounding these effects. This review is the first to synthesize current knowledge on how extrinsic factors, such as diet, antibiotics, and pathogens, and intrinsic factors, including age and strain, influence the composition and function of the honey bee gut microbiota during the overwintering period. Given the increasing severity of winter conditions under climate change, a deeper understanding of microbiome–host–environment interactions is essential for improving honey bee resilience. By integrating evidence on the microbiome’s roles in nutrient utilization, immune modulation, and pathogen defense, this review outlines a framework to guide future research aimed at sustaining pollinator health and nutrition in a changing global climate. Full article

Species may respond to climate change by shifting habitats. For species that engage in obligate interactions, however, such range shifts are only possible if the interaction can occur in the extended range, either via dispersal of the original interaction partner or by acquisition of a novel interaction partner in the extended range. To explore how obligate interactions may persist by parallel dispersal of partners, we investigated the community of obligate fig wasps associated with an isolated fig tree (Ficus petiolaris) in Arizona, USA, found 200 km north of its native range. We expected that if the fig wasps (the single obligate pollinator as well, perhaps, as species-specific non-pollinating wasp associates) were occasionally acquired via dispersal from the native range, then (a) there would be months in which fig wasps were absent, and (b) fig wasps would not be genetically differentiated from those in the native range. Conversely, if fig wasps had formed persistent populations in Arizona on the single tree, we expected that (a) the tree would exhibit high reproductive asynchrony, a trait necessary for long-term pollinator persistence, and (b) the pollinator species would be present throughout the study. We collected and identified fig wasps from this tree for 20 months to determine the composition of the community as well as presence/absence patterns. We also used existing genetic data from two species of non-pollinating fig wasps from Arizona to determine their geographic origin and the extent of genetic differentiation from the same species in the native range. We found a persistent fig wasp community, but one consisting almost exclusively of at least two non-pollinating species in the genus Idarnes; the pollinator species was virtually absent. Our results suggest that previously unknown aspects of the natural history of Idarnes have allowed it to follow its fig tree host out of their shared range. These results point to several puzzles about range extension, as well as a testable hypothesis that the two Idarnes species groups can only persist without pollinators when they occur in tandem. Future ecological and genomic studies are needed to resolve these issues. Full article

Insects underpin key ecosystem services. Yet tree-associated insect communities remain comparatively poorly documented, particularly in temperate forests. This study aimed to characterize the diversity and abundance of insect assemblages associated with the predominantly insect-pollinated forest tree Tilia cordata Mill. in protected areas in Lithuania, and to assess the occurrence of known and putative pollinator groups within these assemblages. We quantified insect assemblages associated with Tilia cordata using two sampling methods but did not directly measure pollination effectiveness (e.g., pollen loads, visitation rates to flowers, or fruit/seed set). Consequently, our inferences refer to the presence and composition of potential pollinators rather than demonstrated pollination function or realized pollination services. Fieldwork was conducted over two years in six protected T. cordata sites in Lithuania using two complementary sampling methods: net sampling and sticky traps. Sampling was structured into three observation periods corresponding to T. cordata phenology: pre-flowering (I), flowering (II) and post-flowering (III). In total, 207 insect taxa from 15 orders were recorded by net sampling and 86 taxa from 11 orders by sticky traps. Net sampling showed significantly higher diversity (Shannon H = 3.81) than sticky traps (H = 2.10). Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Diptera were the most common groups, and most taxa occurred at low to moderate abundances, with only a few species showing local dominance in specific periods or sites. Taxa documented in the literature as significant pollinators were consistently present but at low relative abundances (about 5–10% in total). Insect assemblage composition and species proportions varied among phenological periods and between years, with no clear, consistent peak in overall insect abundance or diversity associated specifically with the T. cordata flowering phase. These findings indicate that T. cordata stands in protected areas harbor diverse insect assemblages typical of temperate deciduous and mixed forest habitats and include a broad spectrum of non-bees and other potential pollinators. Therefore, we did not detect a distinct peak in insect abundance or species richness during the T. cordata flowering period, indicating that flowering did not coincide with a pronounced maximum in pollinator-related insect activity. However, the quantitative patterns observed suggest that, in this context, T. cordata provides only modest support for pollinator guilds, and its role is better interpreted as one component of wider forest insect diversity rather than as a primary driver of pollination services. Full article

Natural grasslands are among the most endangered habitats in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe due to the agricultural intensification, land abandonment and afforestation, urban expansion, and the loss of traditional low-intensity management, on which their biodiversity depends. One way to increase the number of natural grasslands is by integrating them into urban green infrastructure as a nature-based solution to enhance ecological resilience and urban livability: diverse grassland systems support pollinators, improve soil structure and stormwater infiltration, mitigate urban heat and provide restorative, experience-rich public spaces. The aim of the study is to explore opportunities and barriers to integrating different types of grasslands into the green infrastructure of Latvian cities, with a primary focus on public perceptions and institutional aspects of urban grassland implementation and management. A mixed-methods approach was applied, combining resident surveys, interviews with municipal experts—territorial development specialists, planners and maintenance managers—and comparative policy analysis. Results show that although residents acknowledge the ecological benefits of urban grasslands, they prefer them in peripheral or underused areas rather than in city centres and residential zones, as these areas are often aesthetically perceived as “untidy” or neglected, conflicting with cultural norms that favour short, intensively mown lawns and raising concerns about insects. Acceptance increases through communication and participatory practices. Municipal approaches range from structured maintenance guidelines, including delayed mowing, biomass removal, and invasive species control, to flexible experimentation. The study contributes scientifically grounded insights into governance, perception, and management interfaces critical for mainstreaming socially accepted urban grasslands. Full article

Honey bees are very important to the ecological environment and human society, contributing significantly to biodiversity and global food security, with an estimated annual impact of $15 billion in crop pollination in the USA. Over 62% of honey bee colony decline has been observed between June 2024 and February 2025. This study investigates bee stress level monitoring due to external disturbances like mechanical vibrations by measuring internal air temperature, relative humidity, and CO₂ gas concentration levels of beehives. A new wireless sensor board for real-time monitoring of honey bee colonies was designed, built, and validated. The board incorporates NDIR-based SCD30 and SCD41 sensors for CO₂, temperature, and humidity monitoring, integrated with a custom-designed two-layer printed circuit board and a Particle Argon^TM microprocessor for Wi-Fi communication. The developed board was tested and validated with live beehives in summer and winter of 2024 and 2025. The experimental study results showed the adequacy of the built sensor board. Bee colony responses on the applied stimuli (knocks) show that bees responded with a temperature increase of over 5 °C, CO₂ concentration increase by 3000 to over 10,000 ppm, and, at the same time, relative humidity drop by about 10% inside beehives. Full article

Bats are a vital component of tropical forest ecosystems, providing essential services such as pollination, seed dispersal, and insect population regulation. Despite Malaysia’s high bat diversity, research has largely focused on lowland dipterocarp forests, leaving bat assemblages in specialized forest types poorly documented. To address this gap, a bat survey was conducted in Gunung Arong Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia, with emphasis on heath and peat swamp habitats. Fourteen bat species representing Pteropodidae, Emballonuridae, Hipposideridae, Nycteridae, Rhinolophidae, and Vespertilionidae were recorded. The assemblage exhibited high diversity (H = 2.647) and evenness (e^H/S = 1.008), with low dominance (D = 0.0713), indicating a well-balanced community. Kerivoulinae accounted for 44% of captures, with Kerivoula intermedia as the most abundant species. Four Near Threatened species comprised 50% of all individuals captured, highlighting the conservation importance of these habitats. Notably, Arielulus societatis, endemic to Peninsular Malaysia, was recorded for the first time in Johor and represents the first documented occurrence in heath forests. The first mitochondrial COI sequence for A. societatis revealed a 5.44% genetic divergence from A. circumdatus. These findings underscore the ecological significance of heath and peat swamp forests and emphasize the need for targeted research and strengthened conservation efforts in Peninsular Malaysia. Full article

Agrivoltaics (AVs), the co-location of photovoltaic panels and agricultural production, is increasingly promoted as a strategy to enhance land-use efficiency and support renewable energy transitions. While numerous studies emphasize potential synergies, growing evidence indicates that AV systems also entail significant biophysical, ecological and socio-economic trade-offs. This review synthesizes published literature on the negative impacts and management challenges associated with agrivoltaics across diverse crops, climates and institutional contexts. A structured literature analysis was conducted, integrating findings from experimental field studies, ecological assessments, economic evaluations and policy analyses. The reviewed evidence demonstrates that panel-induced shading and altered microclimatic conditions frequently reduce photosynthetically active radiation, modify soil temperature and moisture regimes, and impair photosynthetic efficiency, yield stability, and quality in light-demanding crops. Open-field AV installations further alter understory vegetation, pollinator activity and soil arthropod communities, leading to functional biodiversity losses beneath panel-covered areas. Economic and institutional analyses reveal high investment costs, regulatory ambiguity and land-tenure constraints that disproportionately transfer agronomic and financial risks to farmers, while land-use conflicts may reduce food production and contribute to indirect land-use change. Overall, open-field AV outcomes are strongly context- and design-dependent. The review highlights the need for long-term, integrative assessments and governance frameworks that explicitly address trade-offs to ensure that AVs contribute to sustainable land-use transitions rather than undermining agricultural and ecological functions. Full article

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is an important source of nutrition for humans, providing essential nutrients such as protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Its cultivation is highly attractive to flower-visiting insects, which find abundant nectar and a moderate amount of pollen grains. This study aimed to characterize the taxonomic diversity and composition of flower-visiting insect communities in buckwheat crops across two sites in Chitwan district, Nepal and to assess whether temperature and relative humidity influence community structure. We further quantified the contribution of insect pollination to buckwheat yield by comparing pollinator-excluded plots (net-covered) with open-pollinated plots. In addition, we estimated the economic value of insect-mediated pollination and the nutritional contribution of buckwheat production on a per capita basis. Data were analyzed using non-metric multidimensional scaling, permutational multivariate analysis of variance, similarity percentage analysis, and (generalized) linear mixed-effects models. We found significant differences in flower-visiting insect community composition between the two study sites, independent of temperature and relative humidity, with twelve taxa contributing most to this dissimilarity. Open-pollinated plots exhibited higher buckwheat yields than pollinator-excluded plots, highlighting the importance of insect visitation for crop production. Despite the presence of managed Apis species, we recorded frequent visitation by flies and solitary bees, indicating that these taxa are likely important contributors to buckwheat pollination at local scales. Similarly, insect-mediated pollination significantly increased buckwheat production, and its absence would result in substantial economic losses of USD 2.6 million and reduced nutritional contributions, highlighting the vulnerability of buckwheat-based food security for the Nepalese communities due to pollinator decline. Full article

(1) Background: Bees of the genus Apis play a fundamental role in ecosystems thanks to their pollination activities and their long evolutionary history. This has resulted in species diversifying and spreading across Asia, Africa, and Europe. This review contextualises the genus within biogeographic and evolutionary frameworks, emphasising the importance of understanding the origins, adaptations, distribution and differences between species. (2) Methods: Recent studies on the biology, taxonomy and ecology of Apis species were analysed, including research on social behaviour, communication, genetics, morphology and environmental adaptations, as well as contributions using modern evolutionary and phylogeographic analytical methods. (3) Results: The gathered evidence shows that anthropogenic factors, including climate change, habitat loss, intensive agriculture, pollutants, competition with other bees and the spread of parasites and pathogens, significantly affect the stability of Apis populations and increase the vulnerability of wild species. (4) Conclusions: This review emphasises the importance of integrating ecological, genetic and management knowledge to develop effective conservation strategies that aim to reduce the impact of human activities and preserve the resilience of Apis species and the vital ecosystem services they provide. Full article

Honeybees are vital pollinators that contribute substantially to global ecosystem stability and agricultural productivity. Camellia reticulata, a cross-pollinated crop species, depends on honeybees for successful reproduction. Apis cerana shows reluctance to pollinate C. reticulata, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain unexplored. In this study, we performed controlled feeding experiments in which adult worker A. cerana were supplied with stachyose, raffinose, and their combination. We assessed physiological traits including survival rate, sucrose solution consumption, and body weight gain, alongside histological changes in intestinal cell structures. We conducted RNA-seq of gut tissues as well as 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolomic profiling. Our findings revealed that the mixed oligosaccharide treatment significantly reduced the survival rate of workers, and three oligosaccharide treatments significantly reduced sucrose consumption in A. cerana. Both mixed and single-oligosaccharide treatments caused pronounced intestinal cell damage and disrupted the gut microbial community structure. Among the gut microbes, Gilliamella exhibited the most substantial decline in the stachyose group. Metabolomic analysis further demonstrated that oligosaccharide feeding significantly altered amino acid and galactose metabolism pathways, which may play critical roles in oligosaccharide utilization and directly influence honeybee survival. In summary, this study provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying A. cerana mortality associated with C. reticulata pollination. These findings not only enhance our understanding of host-diet-microbiota interactions in honey bees but also offer a theoretical basis for the integrated management of A. cerana for C. reticulata pollination and the development of oligosaccharide-adapted bee diets. Full article

To investigate how insect hair morphology influences pollination effectiveness, this study examined four common wild pollinators in Camellia oleifera plantations: two bee species (Colletes gigas and Apis cerana) and two hornet species (Vespa velutina and Vespa soror). We systematically measured hair length, hair density, and pollen loads on four body regions (head, thorax, abdomen, and legs). The results indicated that the following: (1) C. gigas possessed significantly longer and denser hairs across all body parts, especially on the legs, compared to the other three species. (2) Both the pollen load per body part and the total pollen load were markedly higher in C. gigas than in the other pollinators. The two hornet species did not differ significantly from A. cerana in pollen load, and even exceeded it in certain traits such as head hair length. (3) Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between total pollen load and both hair length (ρ = 0.545, p < 0.01) and hair density (ρ = 0.391, p < 0.01). Pollen loads on different body regions were also strongly positively correlated, suggesting functional synergy across the insect’s surface. Leg pollen load correlated positively with head and leg hair length, but negatively with head hair density. Notably, leg hair length and density showed a unique positive correlation, highlighting region-specific morphological adaptation. (4) Cluster analysis separated C. gigas from the other three species, which grouped together. In conclusion, hair length and density—particularly on the legs—are key morphological traits underpinning pollen-carrying efficiency in these pollinators. C. gigas demonstrates superior hair morphology and pollen-carrying performance, supporting its role as an effective pollinator of C. oleifera. This study provides a trait-based framework for identifying dominant pollinators and underscores that evaluating species with complex ecological roles, such as hornets, requires integrating morphological traits with broader behavioral and community contexts. Full article

In species-rich forests, the integration of vegetative and reproductive traits defines plant ecological strategies and underpins community assembly. How these trait syndromes assemble into functional groups to facilitate species coexistence in ecotones remains unclear. To address this, we measured 17 key functional traits in 121 woody plant species, covering vegetative and reproductive traits, and used hierarchical clustering to classify these species into functional groups (FGs). We found the following: (1) The woody plant community exhibits distinct trait syndromes adapted to the ecotonal environment: evergreen species accounted for 84.3%, microphanerophytes dominated (95.04%), simple leaves and alternate phyllotaxy prevailed, and animal-mediated pollination (91.74%) and seed dispersal (77.69%) were the primary reproductive strategies. (2) The 121 species were classified into 10 optimal FGs based on integrated differences in vegetative traits (e.g., leaf morphology, life form, phyllotaxy) and reproductive traits (e.g., pollination/dispersal mode, inflorescence/fruit type). Most FGs were dominated by evergreen microphanerophytes, reflecting convergent adaptation to the subtropical ecotonal environment, while distinct adaptive strategies differentiated the groups: FG1 (solely Meliosma rigida) was distinguished by whorled phyllotaxy and large leaves, a specialization for high-light microhabitats; FG5, a unique deciduous group, comprised species (e.g., Nyssa sinensis) with alternate leaves and axillary inflorescences, adapting to seasonal resource fluctuations. (3) These FGs reflected adaptive strategies to diverse microhabitats: rare species in FG4 (e.g., Acer cordatum) adopted wind-dependent pollination/dispersal to cope with mountainous wind variability, while FGs 3, 7, 8, 10 relied on animal mutualism to ensure reproductive success, highlighting the role of plant–animal interactions in community structure. Our study clarifies the trait differentiation patterns and FG assembly mechanisms of woody plants in the mid-subtropical–south-subtropical ecotone. The integrated trait-based FG classification could provide insights into how species coexist via niche differentiation and offer a theoretical basis for biodiversity and ecosystem conservation. Full article

Plant–pollinator interactions are essential to ecosystem functioning, yet the mechanisms that determine why some plant species become highly connected within interaction networks remain insufficiently understood, particularly in tropical coastal systems. Here, we examine how multiple plant traits predict the interactive role of species within a bee–plant network in a coastal ecosystem in the Gulf of Mexico. Using an existing dataset comprising 35 plant species and 47 bee species, we quantified each plant’s interactive role through species degree, betweenness, and closeness centrality. We then evaluated how six traits (i.e., flower number, flower size, flower color, number of stamens, plant height, and life form) influence these network positions. Our results show that four traits significantly predicted plant interactive roles. Plants surrounded by more open flowers and those with larger flowers interacted with a greater diversity of bee species, indicating that resource detectability and accessibility strongly shape visitation patterns. Herbaceous species also exhibited higher interactive roles than woody plants, likely due to their rapid growth, abundant and synchronous flowering, and predictable resource availability in dynamic coastal environments. Additionally, yellow-flowered species received disproportionately more visits and achieved higher interactive roles, consistent with known sensory biases of bees toward yellow wavelengths. In contrast, plant height and stamen number showed no detectable influence on network position. Overall, our findings demonstrate that a combination of vegetative and floral traits (particularly those signaling abundant, accessible, and visually detectable resources) drives the emergence of key plant species within bee–plant networks. Integrating plant traits with network metrics provides a powerful framework for identifying species that sustain pollinator diversity and for predicting community responses to environmental change. Full article

In northwestern Ecuador, where more than 90% of the original forest cover has been lost, it is unknown how soil chemistry influences bat diversity. This study evaluated bat diversity, non-herbaceous plant community structure, and soil nutrients in 30 plots distributed across crops on two farms separated by 32 km. Soil analyses revealed variations in organic matter and nutrients, identifying calcium, magnesium, zinc and iron as the most influential. A total of 1662 individuals of 24 non-herbaceous plant species and 193 individuals of 16 bat species were recorded, dominated by frugivorous and nectarivorous guilds. Generalized linear mixed models showed significant relationships between bat diversity indices and soil nutrients. These elements improve tree growth, fruiting, and flowering, which increases the quality and availability of food resources for bats. In return, these mammals provide key ecosystem services such as pollination, seed dispersal, and insect control. Our findings highlight that soil chemistry indirectly regulates bat communities by influencing vegetation structure and resource availability. This integrated approach underscores the importance of soil–plant–animal interactions in tropical agricultural landscapes, offering practical guidance. Full article

Pollination syndromes reflect the convergence of floral traits among plants sharing the same pollinator guild. However, bee-pollinated orchids exhibit striking variation in color and size. This diversity reflects the multiple reward strategies that evolved within the family, each interacting differently with bee sensory biases. Here, we tested whether the complex floral visual displays of orchids differ in signal identity and intensity among reward systems. We also considered intrafloral modularity, measured as the color differentiation among flower parts, and color–size integration. For this, we measured and modeled floral morphometric and reflectance data from sepals, petals, lip tips, and lip bases under bee vision from 95 tropical Epidendroid species to compare chromatic and achromatic contrasts, spectral purity, and mean reflectance across wavebands, plus flower and display size, among reward systems. Reward types included 19 food-deceptive, 8 nectar-offering, 10 oil-offering, 11 fragrance-offering, and 47 orchid species of unknown reward strategy. Principal component analyses on 34 color and 9 size variables summarized major gradients of visual trait variation: first component (19.1%) represented overall green-red reflectance and achromatic contrasts, whereas the second (16.5%) captured chromatic contrast–size covariation. Reward systems differed mostly in signal identity rather than signal intensity. Flower chromatic contrasts presented strong integration with flower size, while achromatic contrasts were negatively associated with display size. While deceptive and nectar-offering orchids tend toward larger solitary flowers with bluer and spectrally purer displays, oil- and fragrance-offering orchids tend toward smaller, brownish, or yellow to green flowers, with larger inflorescences. Rewardless orchids presented more achromatically conspicuous signals than rewarding orchids, but smaller displays. Orchid species clustered by reward both in PCA spaces and in bee hexagon color space. Deceptive orchids were typically associated with UV + White colors, oil orchids with UV + Yellow lip tips, and fragrance orchids with UV-Black lip bases and UV-Green lip tips. Together, these results indicate that orchid reward systems promote qualitative rather than quantitative differentiation in visual signals, integrating display color and size. These long-evolved distinct signals potentially enable foraging bees to discriminate among resource types within the community floral market. Our results demonstrate that color and flower display size are important predictors of reward strategy, likely used by foraging bees for phenotype-reward associations, thus mediating the evolution of floral signals. Full article