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Keywords = palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD)

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13 pages, 2176 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Diesel from Pyrolysis of Unsaturated Fatty Acid Basic Soaps: The Effect of Temperature on Yield and Product Composition
by Endar Puspawiningtiyas, Oki Muraza, Hary Devianto, Meiti Pratiwi, Subagjo, Tirto Prakoso, Krisnawan, Usamah Zaki, Lidya Elizabeth, Tatang H. Soerawidjaja, Yohanes Andre Situmorang and Antonius Indarto
Molecules 2022, 27(3), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030667 - 20 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3036
Abstract
The production of sustainable diesel without hydrogen addition remains a challenge for low-cost fuel production. In this work, the pyrolysis of unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) basic soaps was studied for the production sustainable diesel (bio-hydrocarbons). UFAs were obtained from palm fatty acids distillate [...] Read more.
The production of sustainable diesel without hydrogen addition remains a challenge for low-cost fuel production. In this work, the pyrolysis of unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) basic soaps was studied for the production sustainable diesel (bio-hydrocarbons). UFAs were obtained from palm fatty acids distillate (PFAD), which was purified by the fractional crystallization method. Metal hydroxides were used to make basic soap composed of a Ca, Mg, and Zn mixture with particular composition. The pyrolysis reactions were carried out in a batch reactor at atmospheric pressure and various temperatures from 375 to 475 °C. The liquid products were obtained with the best yield (58.35%) at 425 °C and yield of diesel fraction 53.4%. The fatty acids were not detected in the pyrolysis liquid product. The gas product consisted of carbon dioxide and methane. The liquid products were a mixture of hydrocarbon with carbon chains in the range of C7 and C20 containing n-alkane, alkene, and iso-alkane. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Applied Chemistry)
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10 pages, 4282 KiB  
Article
Conversion of Waste Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Polymer into Activated Carbon and Its Feasibility to Produce Green Fuel
by Firdous Ahmad Ahangar, Umer Rashid, Junaid Ahmad, Toshiki Tsubota and Ali Alsalme
Polymers 2021, 13(22), 3952; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13223952 - 16 Nov 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6598
Abstract
In this study, a novel idea was proposed to convert the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste drinking-water bottles into activated carbon (AC) to use for waste cooking oil (WCO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) feasibility to convert into esters. The acidic and basic [...] Read more.
In this study, a novel idea was proposed to convert the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste drinking-water bottles into activated carbon (AC) to use for waste cooking oil (WCO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) feasibility to convert into esters. The acidic and basic char were prepared by using the waste PET bottles. The physiochemical properties were determined by employing various analytical techniques, such as field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and temperature-programmed desorption – ammonia/carbon dioxide (TPD-NH3/CO2). The prepared PET H3PO4 and PET KOH showed the higher surface area, thus illustrating that the surface of both materials has enough space for impregnation of foreign precursors. The TPD-NH3 and TPD-CO2 results depicted that PET H3PO4 is found to have higher acidity, i.e., 18.17 mmolg−1, due to the attachment of phosponyl groups to it during pretreatment, whereas, in the case of PET KOH, the basicity increases to 13.49 mmolg−1. The conversion results show that prepared materials can be used as a support for an acidic and basic catalyst for the conversion of WCO and PFAD into green fuel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Bioplastics)
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15 pages, 2112 KiB  
Article
Bioreactor Rhamnolipid Production Using Palm Oil Agricultural Refinery By-Products
by Mohd Nazren Radzuan, James Winterburn and Ibrahim Banat
Processes 2021, 9(11), 2037; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112037 - 14 Nov 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3217
Abstract
Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) and fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) are used by P. aeruginosa PAO1 to produce rhamnolipid biosurfactant. The process of fermentation producing of biosurfactant was structured in a 2 L bioreactor using 2% of PFAD and FAME as carbon [...] Read more.
Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) and fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) are used by P. aeruginosa PAO1 to produce rhamnolipid biosurfactant. The process of fermentation producing of biosurfactant was structured in a 2 L bioreactor using 2% of PFAD and FAME as carbon sources in minimal medium and with a nitrogen concentration of 1 g L−1. Mass spectrometry results show the crude biosurfactant produced was predominantly monorhamnolipid (Rha-C10-C10) and dirhamnolipid (Rha-Rha-C10-C10) at 503 and 649 m/z value for both substrates. Maximum production of crude rhamnolipid for PFAD was 1.06 g L−1 whereas for FAME it was 2.1 g L−1, with a reduction in surface tension of Tris-HCl pH 8.0 solution to 28 mN m−1 and a critical micelle concentration (CMC) of 26 mg L−1 measured for both products. Furthermore, the 24 h emulsification indexes in kerosene, hexadecane, sunflower oil, and rapeseed oil using 1 g L−1 of crude rhamnolipid were in the range 20–50%. Consequently, PFAD and FAME, by-products from the agricultural refining of palm oil, may result in a product that has a higher added-value, rhamnolipid biosurfactant, in the process of integrated biorefinery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Bioreactors: Control, Optimization and Applications)
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17 pages, 7718 KiB  
Article
Renewable Diesel Production from Palm Fatty Acids Distillate (PFAD) via Deoxygenation Reactions
by Brenda Fernanda Honorato de Oliveira, Luiz Ferreira de França, Nádia Cristina Fernandes Corrêa, Nielson Fernando da Paixão Ribeiro and Mauricio Velasquez
Catalysts 2021, 11(9), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11091088 - 9 Sep 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4505
Abstract
The reactions to produce liquid biofuels from a palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) under hydrogen absence were carried out using 10 wt% NiO/zeolite (Ni/Zeo), 10 wt% Co3O4/zeolite (Co/Zeo), and 10 wt% (NiO + Co3O4)/zeolite (NiCo/Zeo) [...] Read more.
The reactions to produce liquid biofuels from a palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) under hydrogen absence were carried out using 10 wt% NiO/zeolite (Ni/Zeo), 10 wt% Co3O4/zeolite (Co/Zeo), and 10 wt% (NiO + Co3O4)/zeolite (NiCo/Zeo) as catalysts. The zeolite was synthesized by a thermal and chemical treatment from natural clay, obtaining a zeolite A and sodalite mixture. Catalytic activity was evaluated as a function of reaction temperature (250, 300, and 350 °C) during 0.5 h and using 5 wt% of catalyst. The reaction products were classified as organic liquid products (OLPs), gaseous products, and solid waste. The OLPs fractions were separated by fractional distillation, and the products were identified and quantified using gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer detector (GC-MS). The results showed yields to OLPs above 50% for all catalysts and temperatures. However, the highest yield to OLPs of 67.9% was reached with a NiCoZeo catalyst at 300 °C. In this reaction, a higher yield to hydrocarbons was obtained (84.8%), indicating a cooperative effect between Ni and Co in the catalyst. Hydrocarbons such as heptadecane (C17H36), pentadecane (C15H26), and other alkanes-alkenes with lower carbon chains were the main products. Therefore, deoxygenation of PFAD using a low-cost Ni-Co catalyst was shown to be an economic and viable way to produce diesel-type biofuels. Full article
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19 pages, 1610 KiB  
Article
Soybean Oil Replacement by Palm Fatty Acid Distillate in Broiler Chicken Diets: Fat Digestibility and Lipid-Class Content along the Intestinal Tract
by Beatriz Jimenez-Moya, Ana C. Barroeta, Alba Tres, María Dolores Soler and Roser Sala
Animals 2021, 11(4), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11041035 - 6 Apr 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4722
Abstract
Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is a by-product of palm oil (P) refining. Its use in chicken diets is a way to reduce the cost of feed and the environmental impact. Its low unsaturated:saturated fatty acid ratio (UFA:SFA) and its high free fatty [...] Read more.
Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is a by-product of palm oil (P) refining. Its use in chicken diets is a way to reduce the cost of feed and the environmental impact. Its low unsaturated:saturated fatty acid ratio (UFA:SFA) and its high free fatty acid (FFA) level could be partially counteracted by its blending with soybean oil (S). The objective was to assess the effect of replacing S with different levels of PFAD on lipid-class content and fatty acid (FA) digestibility along the intestinal tract and in the excreta of 11 and 35-day-old broiler chickens. Five experimental diets were prepared by supplementing a basal diet with S (S6), PFAD (PA6), two blends of them (S4-PA2 and S2-PA4), or P (P6) at 6%. Replacing S with PFAD did not affect performance parameters (p > 0.05) but negatively affected feed AME, FA digestibility, and FFA intestinal content (p < 0.05), especially in starter chicks. Including PFAD delayed total FA (TFA) absorption (p < 0.05) at 11 days, but at 35 days it did not affect the TFA absorption rate. The use of PFAD blended with S, when FFA ≤ 30% and UFA:SFA ≥ 2.6, led to adequate energy utilization in broiler grower-finisher diets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feed Ingredients for Swine and Poultry)
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19 pages, 3112 KiB  
Article
Continuous Ultrasound-Assisted Esterification and Transesterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate for Ethyl Ester Production
by Krit Somnuk, Dunyawat Phanyusoh, Jarernporn Thawornprasert, Ye Min Oo and Gumpon Prateepchaikul
Processes 2021, 9(3), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9030449 - 2 Mar 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3297
Abstract
Ethyl ester production from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) with ethanol in the presence of sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide was performed in a continuous three-step process using the ultrasound clamps and an ultrasonic probe. The ultimate goal was to produce biodiesel from [...] Read more.
Ethyl ester production from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) with ethanol in the presence of sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide was performed in a continuous three-step process using the ultrasound clamps and an ultrasonic probe. The ultimate goal was to produce biodiesel from the PFAD. In the first and second esterification steps, 16 units of a 400 W ultrasound clamp (20 kHz) were attached 100-m apart along each tubular reactor. In the third transesterification step, a 1000-W ultrasonic homogenizer (18 kHz) was used in a 100-mL continuous reactor. A composite central design of experiments and the response surface methodology (RSM) were used to develop predictive models and identify the optimal conditions of each step based on the purities of ethyl ester. The optimal conditions in the first step were 46.1 vol.% ethanol, 1.4 vol.% sulfuric acid, and purity 66.68 wt.% ethyl ester. In the second step, the optimized conditions were 57 vol.% ethanol, and 2.1 vol.% sulfuric acid, purity 95.32 wt.% ethyl ester. The final transesterification step was carried out with 14.6 vol.% ethanol and 3.9 gKOH L−1. As a result, a final ethyl ester purity of 98.15 wt.% was achieved in the biodiesel using the three-step process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)
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10 pages, 398 KiB  
Article
Degree of Saturation and Free Fatty Acid Content of Fats Determine Dietary Preferences in Laying Hens
by María Palomar, María Dolores Soler, Eugeni Roura, Roser Sala, Olga Piquer and Carlos Garcés-Narro
Animals 2020, 10(12), 2437; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10122437 - 19 Dec 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3830
Abstract
Behavioural and genetic evidence shows that the taste system is intimately related to the sensing of nutrients with consequences for poultry nutrition practices. A better understanding of how chickens may sense fat could provide the background for selecting feedstuffs used in poultry feeds. [...] Read more.
Behavioural and genetic evidence shows that the taste system is intimately related to the sensing of nutrients with consequences for poultry nutrition practices. A better understanding of how chickens may sense fat could provide the background for selecting feedstuffs used in poultry feeds. Acid oils have the potential to be economical and sustainable feedstuffs. These fat by-products from the edible oil refining industry possess a similar fatty acid composition to the crude oils but are richer in free fatty acids (FFA). An experiment was conducted to study the effect of FFA content and the unsaturated:saturated ratio (U:S) on dietary preferences in hens. Four fat sources were added to a basal diet at an inclusion rate of 6%, determining the experimental diets: soybean oil (SO; high U:S, 5% FFA); soybean acid oil (SA; high U:S, 50% FFA); palm oil (PO; low U:S, 5% FFA); and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD; low U:S, 50% FFA). The experimental diets were offered in a series of double-choice tests to forty-eight Lohmann Brown laying hens housed individually in cages. Each hen was offered the ten potential binary combinations of the four diets including each diet compared to itself (referred to as four control double-choices). Feed intake was measured for two hours twice a day after one hour of fasting. Consumption was analysed as a standard preference index (% of test diet intake in comparison with the total intake). Preference values were compared to the random choice value of 50% using the Student’s t-test. None of the four control comparisons differ significantly from 50% (p > 0.05), indicating that the changes in preference values observed in the other binary comparisons were related to the dietary changes associated to fat ingredients. Hens showed a feed preference for palm oil added diets over soybean oil diets (p < 0.05), with PO and PFAD being equally preferred (p < 0.05). However, in this trial the hens demonstrated a preference for SO (low %FFA) when offered in choice with SA (high %FFA) (p < 0.05). These results suggest that the degree of saturation plays an important role in dietary fat preferences: hens prefer predominantly saturated oils even when these are rich in FFA. Furthermore, when presented with a choice between predominantly unsaturated oils, hens prefer feed with a low %FFA. In conclusion, %FFA and the U:S ratio affected feed preferences in hens. The use of oils with greater preference values may give rise to greater feed palatability, enhancing feed intake at critical stages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Poultry)
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13 pages, 4979 KiB  
Article
Study the Effect of Various Sulfonation Methods on Catalytic Activity of Carbohydrate-Derived Catalysts for Ester Production
by Nur Hidayah Deris, Umer Rashid, Soroush Soltani, Thomas Shean Yaw Choong and Imededdine Arbi Nehdi
Catalysts 2020, 10(6), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10060638 - 8 Jun 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4209
Abstract
In the present study, four types of sulfonation method, including thermal treatment with concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4), thermal decomposition of ammonium sulphate (NHSO4), thermal treatment with chlorosulfonic in chloroform (HSO3Cl), and in situ polymerization [...] Read more.
In the present study, four types of sulfonation method, including thermal treatment with concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4), thermal decomposition of ammonium sulphate (NHSO4), thermal treatment with chlorosulfonic in chloroform (HSO3Cl), and in situ polymerization of poly(sodium4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS), were employed to convert incomplete carbonized glucose (ICG) to sulfonated heterogeneous catalysts for the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) production. The characteristics of synthesized catalysts were further examined using Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transformation infrared (FT-IR), ammonia temperature programmed desorption (NH3-TPD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX). According to experiments, the sulfonic acid density was varied in a range from 4.408 to 14.643 mmol g−1 over various sulfonation methods. The catalytic activity of synthesized catalysts over different sulfonation methods was determined by performing the conversion of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) to ester synthesis in a batch-system reactor. The findings reveal that using PSS-ICG resulted in the highest FAME yield of 96.3% followed by HSO3Cl-ICG of 94.8%, NHSO4-ICG of 84.2%; and H2SO4-ICG of 77.2%. According to results, the ICG sulfonated by PSS method with the highest acid density (14.643 mmol g−1) gave the highest catalytic activity over PFAD conversion to biodiesel. According to experiment results, acid density played a crucial role over FAME yield percentage. Besides acid density, it is also worth mentioning that various sulfonation methods including different mechanisms, chemicals and sulfonating agents played crucial roles in the FAME yield percentage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heterogeneous Catalysis in Green Chemistry)
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15 pages, 3867 KiB  
Article
Palm Biochar-Based Sulphated Zirconium (Zr-AC-HSO3) Catalyst for Methyl Ester Production from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate
by Umer Rashid, Soroush Soltani, Thomas Shean Yaw Choong, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, Junaid Ahmad and Chawalit Ngamcharussrivichai
Catalysts 2019, 9(12), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal9121029 - 5 Dec 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3696
Abstract
A palm waste kernel shell biomass was converted into bio-based sulphonated activated carbon and further used for preparation of a sulphated zirconium-doped activated catalyst (Zr-AC-HSO3) by wet impregnation method. The structural, physicochemical, morphological, textural, and thermal characteristics of the synthesized Zr-AC-HSO [...] Read more.
A palm waste kernel shell biomass was converted into bio-based sulphonated activated carbon and further used for preparation of a sulphated zirconium-doped activated catalyst (Zr-AC-HSO3) by wet impregnation method. The structural, physicochemical, morphological, textural, and thermal characteristics of the synthesized Zr-AC-HSO3 catalyst were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area analysis, temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia (TPD-NH3), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The catalytic activity of the 20 wt% Zr-AC-HSO3 catalyst was further evaluated for esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). This study achieved a maximum fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 94.3% and free fatty acid (FFA) conversion of 96.1% via the esterification over 20 wt% Zr-AC-HSO3 using 3 wt% catalyst concentration, 15:1 methanol:PFAD molar ratio at 75 °C for 3 h. The experiments to test for reusability showed that the spent catalyst was stable for five successive reaction cycles, with a FFA conversion of 80% in the fifth cycle, without additional treatment. The critical fuel features of the synthesized PFAD methyl ester were determined and were within the range of EN14214 and ASTM D6751 standards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation of Catalysts from Renewable and Waste Materials)
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21 pages, 1825 KiB  
Article
Development of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate-Containing Medium for Biosurfactant Production by Pseudomonas sp. LM19
by Abdul Hamid Nurfarahin, Mohd Shamzi Mohamed and Lai Yee Phang
Molecules 2019, 24(14), 2613; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24142613 - 18 Jul 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3445
Abstract
High production costs of biosurfactants are mainly caused by the usage of the expensive substrate and long fermentation period which undermines their potential in bioremediation processes, food, and cosmetic industries even though they, owing to the biodegradability, lower toxicity, and raise specificity traits. [...] Read more.
High production costs of biosurfactants are mainly caused by the usage of the expensive substrate and long fermentation period which undermines their potential in bioremediation processes, food, and cosmetic industries even though they, owing to the biodegradability, lower toxicity, and raise specificity traits. One way to circumvent this is to improvise the formulation of biosurfactant-production medium by using cheaper substrate. A culture medium utilizing palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), a palm oil refinery by-product, was first developed through one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) technique and further refined by means of the statistical design method of factorial and response surface modeling to enhance the biosurfactant production from Pseudomonas sp. LM19. The results shows that, the optimized culture medium containing: 1.148% (v/v) PFAD; 4.054 g/L KH2PO4; 1.30 g/L yeast extract; 0.023 g/L sodium-EDTA; 1.057 g/L MgSO4·7H2O; 0.75 g/L K2HPO4; 0.20 g/L CaCl2·2H2O; 0.080 g/L FeCl3·6H2O gave the maximum biosurfactant productivity. This study demonstrated that the cell concentration and biosurfactant productivity could reach up to 8.5 × 109 CFU/mL and 0.346 g/L/day, respectively after seven days of growth, which were comparable to the values predicted by an RSM regression model, i.e., 8.4 × 109 CFU/mL and 0.347 g/L/day, respectively. Eleven rhamnolipid congeners were detected, in which dirhamnolipid accounted for 58% and monorhamnolipid was 42%. All in all, manipulation of palm oil by-products proved to be a feasible substrate for increasing the biosurfactant production about 3.55-fold as shown in this study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontier in Green Chemistry Approaches II)
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16 pages, 3998 KiB  
Article
Single-Pot Synthesis of Biodiesel using Efficient Sulfonated-Derived Tea Waste-Heterogeneous Catalyst
by Umer Rashid, Junaid Ahmad, Mohd Lokman Ibrahim, Jan Nisar, Muhammad Asif Hanif and Thomas Yaw Choong Shean
Materials 2019, 12(14), 2293; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12142293 - 18 Jul 2019
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 4598
Abstract
The main purpose of this manuscript is to report the new usage of tea waste (TW) as a catalyst for efficient conversion of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) to biodiesel. In this work, we investigate the potential of tea waste char as a [...] Read more.
The main purpose of this manuscript is to report the new usage of tea waste (TW) as a catalyst for efficient conversion of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) to biodiesel. In this work, we investigate the potential of tea waste char as a catalyst for biodiesel production before and after sulfonation. The activated sulfonated tea waste char catalyst was characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), elemental composition (CHNS), nitrogen adsorption-desorption using Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and ammonia-temperature-programmed desorption (NH3-TPD). The activated tea waste char catalyst shows higher acid density of 31 μmol g−1 as compared to tea waste char of 16 μmol g−1 and higher surface area of 122 m2/g. The optimum fatty acid conversion conditions were found that 4 wt % of catalyst loading with 9:1 of methanol:PFAD for 90 min of reaction time at 65 °C gives 97% free fatty acid (FFA) conversion. In conclusion, the sulfonated tea waste (STW) catalyst showed an impressive catalytic activity towards the esterification of PFAD at optimum reaction conditions with significant recyclability in five successive cycles without any reactivation step. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heterogeneous Catalysts for Energy and Environmental Applications)
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16 pages, 2855 KiB  
Article
Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate for Biodiesel Production Catalyzed by Synthesized Kenaf Seed Cake-Based Sulfonated Catalyst
by Shehu-Ibrahim Akinfalabi, Umer Rashid, Thomas Yaw Choong Shean, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, Hassen Mohamed Sbihi and Mohamed Mossad Gewik
Catalysts 2019, 9(5), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal9050482 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5050
Abstract
Sulfonated kenaf seed cake (SO3H-KSC) catalyst, was synthesized to aid biodiesel production from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). It was chemically activated with phosphoric acid for an impregnation period of 24 h in order to enhance the porosity and the specific [...] Read more.
Sulfonated kenaf seed cake (SO3H-KSC) catalyst, was synthesized to aid biodiesel production from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). It was chemically activated with phosphoric acid for an impregnation period of 24 h in order to enhance the porosity and the specific surface area of kenaf seed cake (KSC). After the carbonization and sulfonation, the resultant catalyst was characterized with powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), NH3-temperature programmed desorption (NH3-TPD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The SO3H-KSC catalyst was amorphous in nature and had an acid density of 14.32 mmol/g, specific surface area of 365.63 m2/g, pore volume of 0.31 cm3/g and pore diameter of 2.89 nm. At optimum esterification conditions--reaction time 90 mins, temperature of 338 K, methanol:PFAD molar ratio of 10:1 and catalyst concentration of 2 wt.%—a free fatty acid (FFA) conversion of 98.7% and fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) yield of 97.9% was achieved. The synthesized SO3H-KSC catalyst underwent five reaction cycles while maintaining a fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) yield and free fatty acid (FFA) conversion of >90%. Thus, the SO3H-KSC catalyst was shown to be an excellent application of bio-based material as a precursor for catalyst synthesis for esterification of PFAD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation of Catalysts from Renewable and Waste Materials)
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15 pages, 2317 KiB  
Article
Appraisal of Sulphonation Processes to Synthesize Palm Waste Biochar Catalysts for the Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate
by Shehu-Ibrahim Akinfalabi, Umer Rashid, Robiah Yunus and Yun Hin Taufiq-Yap
Catalysts 2019, 9(2), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal9020184 - 15 Feb 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4888
Abstract
Palm waste biochar (PWB) catalysts were synthesized as bio-based catalysts using different sulphonation methods. (NH4)2SO4, ClSO3H, and H2SO4 were applied to functionalize PWB and appraise the discrepancies between the sulfonic agents, as [...] Read more.
Palm waste biochar (PWB) catalysts were synthesized as bio-based catalysts using different sulphonation methods. (NH4)2SO4, ClSO3H, and H2SO4 were applied to functionalize PWB and appraise the discrepancies between the sulfonic agents, as they affect the esterification reaction in terms of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield and conversion while using palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) as feedstock. The PWB was first soaked in phosphoric acid (H3PO4) for 24 h and then pyrolized at 400 °C for 2 h in tube furnace. Afterwards, sulphonation was done with different sulfonic agents and characterized with thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), and temperature programmed desorption–ammonia (TPD-NH3). The three synthesized catalysts showed high free fatty acid (FFA) conversions of 90.1% for palm waste biochar-ammonium sulfate (PWB-(NH4)2SO4), 91.5% for palm waste biochar-chlorosulfonic acid (PWB-ClSO3H), and 97.4% for palm waste biochar - sulphuric acid (PWB-H2SO4), whereas FAME yields were 88.6% (PWB-(NH4)2SO4), 89.1% (PWB-ClSO3H), and 96.1% (PWB-H2SO4). It was observed that PWB-H2SO4 has the best catalytic activity, which was directly linked to its high acid density (11.35 mmol/g), improved pore diameter (6.25 nm), and increased specific surface area (372.01 m2 g−1). PWB-H2SO4 was used for the reusability study, where it underwent eight reaction runs and was stable until the seventh run. PWB-H2SO4 has shown huge promise for biodiesel synthesis, owing to its easy synthetic process, recyclability, and high catalytic activity for waste oils and fats. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Applications in Surface Chemistry and Catalysis)
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16 pages, 4677 KiB  
Article
UV-Curable Urethane Acrylate Resin from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate
by Kim Teck Teo, Aziz Hassan and Seng Neon Gan
Polymers 2018, 10(12), 1374; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10121374 - 11 Dec 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 9207
Abstract
Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), is a by-product of the crude palm oil refining process. It comprises mainly of free fatty acids—around 45% palmitic and 33% oleic acids—as the major components. Ultra-violet (UV) curable urethane acrylate (UA) oligomers could be synthesized from PFAD, [...] Read more.
Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), is a by-product of the crude palm oil refining process. It comprises mainly of free fatty acids—around 45% palmitic and 33% oleic acids—as the major components. Ultra-violet (UV) curable urethane acrylate (UA) oligomers could be synthesized from PFAD, by the following procedure. A hydroxyl terminated macromer was first prepared by reacting PFAD with a mixture of isophthalic acid, phthalic anhydride, neopentagylcol (NPG), and pentaerythritol. The macromer was then reacted with 2-hydroxylethylacrylate (2HEA) and toluene diisocynate (TDI) to generate a resin, containing acrylate side chains for UV curable application. A series of UA resins were prepared by using 15, 25, 45, 55, and 70% of PFAD, respectively. The UA resin has Mw in the range of 3,200 to 27,000. They could be cured by UV irradiation at an intensity of 225 mW/cm2. Glass transition temperature (Tg) of the cured film was measured by differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), and hardness of the film was determined by a pendulum hardness tester, according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)4366. The resins were used in a wood-coating application. All of the cured films showed good adhesion, hardness, and chemical resistance except for the one using the 70% PFAD, which did not cure properly. Full article
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