Search Results (45)

Nitrogen (N) fertilizer management in winter wheat production faces challenges from volatilization losses and sub-optimal application strategies. This is particularly problematic in the Southern Great Plains, where environmental conditions during top-dressing periods favor N losses. This study evaluated the effects of a fertilizer placement method, enhanced-efficiency fertilizers, and application timing on grain yield and protein concentration (GPC) across six site-years in Oklahoma (2016–2018). Treatments included broadcast applications of untreated urea and SuperU^® (urease/nitrification inhibitor-treated urea). These were compared with subsurface placement using single-disc and double-disc drilling systems, applied at 67 kg N ha⁻¹ during January, February, or March. Subsurface placement increased the grain yield by 324–391 kg ha⁻¹ compared to broadcast applications at sites with favorable soil conditions. However, responses varied significantly across environments. Enhanced-efficiency fertilizers showed limited advantages over untreated urea. Benefits were most pronounced during February applications under conditions favoring volatilization losses. Application timing effects were more consistent for GPC than for the yield. Later applications (February–March) increased GPC by 0.8–1.2% compared to January applications. Treatment efficacy was strongly influenced by soil pH, equipment performance, and post-application environmental conditions. This indicates that N management benefits are highly site-specific. These findings demonstrate that subsurface placement can improve nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) under appropriate conditions. However, success depends on matching application strategies to local soil and environmental factors rather than adopting universal recommendations. Full article

Choosing appropriate tillage methods and nitrogen application are important steps in the management of wheat production for obtaining high-yield and high-quality products, as well as managing the level of weed infestation. The aim of this research was to examine the impacts of three different tillage practices (conventional tillage—CT, mulch tillage—MT, and no tillage—NT), and two top dressing fertilization nitrogen levels (rational—60 kg ha⁻¹ and high—120 kg ha⁻¹) on the grain yield and quality of winter wheat, as well as on weed infestation. The present study was carried out in field experiments on chernozem luvic type soil at the Faculty of Agriculture Belgrade-Zemun Experimental field trial “Radmilovac”, in the growing seasons of 2020/2021–2022/2023. The C/N ratio in the soil was also assessed on all plots. The results showed that the number of weeds and their fresh and air-dry weights were higher on the MT and NT plots, compared to the CT plots. Therefore, the CT system has better effects on the yield (5.91 and 5.36 t ha⁻¹) and the protein content (13.3 and 13.1%). Furthermore, the grain weight per spike and the 1000-grain weight were higher in the wheat from the CT system (41.83 and 42.75 g) than from the MT (40.34 and 41.49 g) and NT (40.26 and 41.08 g) systems. Also, the crops from the CT system had higher values of grain density and grain uniformity compared to the crop from the MT and NT systems. Fertilization with a high nitrogen level (120 kg ha⁻¹) causes higher grain yield and more weediness compared with the rational level (60 kg ha⁻¹). Top dressing fertilization in each tillage system resulted in an increase in the number of weeds, but, at the same time, it also resulted in stronger competitive ability of the wheat crop against weeds. The most favorable C/N ratio occurred on the NT plots, and the least beneficial one on the CT ones. A correlation analysis showed strong negative correlations of number (r = −0.82) and fresh weed mass (r = −0.72) with yield. It is concluded that the conventional tillage practice with a low nitrogen dose manifests its superior performance in minimizing weed infestation and maximizing crop productivity. Full article

The increased frequency of extreme heat stress events due to climate change is adversely impacting rice yield. Nitrogen (N) is an essential element in the synthesis of chlorophyll in rice, contributing substantially to the achievement of spikelet fertility and addressing the high yields. Two experiments were conducted in Japan and Afghanistan in 2020 and 2022, respectively, utilizing IR64 and Nipponbare (NPB) varieties to elucidate the efficacy of N top-dressing on spikelet fertility and yield of rice under heat stress conditions. In experiment I, the treatments involved were based on N application before panicle emergence in pots, including (1) control (fertilized at the tillering stage), (2) control + N topdressing, (3) heat stress (fertilized at the tillering stage), and (4) heat stress + N topdressing. Experiment II consisted of (1) control (basal dressing at the tillering stage) and (2) control + N topdressing, which was conducted under field conditions. Results showed that N application significantly (p < 0.05) increased SPAD values and spikelet fertility rates in both experiments. A positive correlation (range; r = 0.83–0.98) was observed between enhanced SPAD values and spikelet fertility rates in IR64 and NPB rice varieties under both ambient and heat stress conditions. Moreover, there were notable increases in photosynthetic rate (7.4% to 52.6%) and leaf transpiration. N top dressing significantly (p < 0.05) increased the panicle length, panicle weight, number of secondary branches/panicle, filled grain/panicle, total spikelets/panicle, and yield/plant. However, there was no significant difference in the number of primary branches per panicle and 1000-grain weight. In addition, the number of unfilled grains/panicle decreased from 5.5 to 49.7% with N top dressing in both experiments. Applying N as a top dressing improved the spikelet fertility percentage and other yield components, resulting in a high yield/plant. Full article

Applying a top dressing of nitrogen fertilizer before harvesting spring tea is vital for producing high-quality spring tea. However, the interaction between the sprouting phenological characteristics of various cultivars and the timing of top dressing remains unclear. A field trial was conducted to investigate such interaction. Urea enriched with ¹⁵N was applied to soil of the early-sprouting cultivar Jia-ming-1 (JM1) and the late-sprouting cultivar Tie-guan-yin (TGY) on 29 January (early application, EApp) or 10 March (late application, LApp), respectively. The bud density and yield of young spring shoots were significantly decreased in LApp compared to EApp. Such differences were more remarkable in the early-sprouting cultivar (JM1) than in the late-sprouting cultivar (TGY). The N_dff (N derived from ¹⁵N-enriched urea) in mature leaves and young spring shoots as well as the amount of ¹⁵N in young spring shoots were all higher in EApp than in LApp. N_dff in both mature leaves (R² = 0.99, p < 0.001) and young spring shoots (R² = 0.61–0.89, p < 0.01) could be well predicted by the growing degree days of the duration between the N fertilization and sampling. N_dff and ¹⁵N concentrations in mature leaves were significantly correlated with the content of nitrate and the ratio of ammonium to total inorganic nitrogen. Partial least squares path modeling revealed that thermal condition directly affected soil N supply and soil pH and thereby affected N_dff in mature leaves and young spring shoots. Our findings highlight the importance of early pre-spring topdressing of N fertilizer to improve the yield and N use efficiency of spring tea in both early- and late-sprouting tea cultivars. The work identified a synergistic effect of N uptake by tea plants, N transformation, and soil pH related to the thermo-conditions of early and late N topdressing. Full article

This study developed a nitrogen management framework that simultaneously addresses photosynthetic limitations and water scarcity challenges, providing a scalable solution for sustainable wheat production in arid farming systems. Focusing on Xinjiang’s arid region, we investigated how different ratios of basal to topdressed nitrogen fertilization affect photosynthetic mechanisms in drip-irrigated spring wheat. We implemented a split-plot design during the 2020–2021 growing seasons, using two wheat cultivars as main plots: strong-gluten Xinchun 37 (XC37) and medium-gluten Xinchun 6 (XC6). The subplots consisted of five N application treatments: N00: (no nitrogen application, control), N28 (base fertilizer 20%, top dressing 80%, and so on), N37 (3:7), N46 (4:6), and N55 (5:5). The vast majority of indicators performed best under N37 treatment. And LAI, RuBPC (ribulose-1,5-diphosphate ribulose carboxylase) activity, net photosynthetic rate (P_n), yield, and its composition were higher than the rest of the treatments by 0.21~31.75%, 6.94~25.21%, 7.42~40.78%, 0.86~25.44%, and 0.44~12.02%. And intercellular CO₂, concentration (C_i) was lower than other treatments by 7.63~50.60%. Yield showed q highly significant positive correlation with P_n, G_s, T_r, Φ_PSⅡ, and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, but a negative correlation with C_i. Stepwise regression analysis showed that LAI, P_n, C_i, and RuBPC activity had a significant impact on yield and its compositions. In addition, all index performances of XC37 were better than XC6. Under drip irrigation in arid zones, allocating 30% basal + 70% topdressed N optimally enhances photosynthetic capacity and yield formation in spring wheat, offering a practical pathway for sustainable intensification in water-limited agroecosystems. Full article

Several countries around the world are facing the issue of freshwater availability, where agriculture is highly dependent on irrigation, consuming 70% of this vital resource. Water availability is the most limiting factor for the crop production sector and one of the main regulators of the spatial distribution of plants. It is noted that in recent years, the methods of irrigation water application have been improved. Currently, research is directed towards irrigation strategies that reduce water applications. A partial root drying (PRD) technique involves irrigating one-half of the root zone while leaving the other half in relatively dry soil. This method is used in the production of various crops, such as potatoes and cotton. However, the mechanism of PRD, including the physiological and molecular biological processes involved, is not fully understood. In this study, tomato plants were treated with PRD and nitrogen (N) top-dressing. The results showed that PRD could significantly increase the fruit yield, photosynthetic activities, nitrate reductase activity, and fruit quality in the tomato plants, and PRD could also promote the concentrations of oxygen species (O₂⁻), malondialdehyde (MDA) and proline contents, and activities of antioxidant enzymes. In addition, PRD could enhance stress resistance by increasing disease resistance and NP1 and DRED3 antioxidant enzyme activity. Tomato plants treated with PRD compared to the control showed high photosynthetic activity, high yield, better quality of production, and low leaf blight incidence. Overall, the results indicate that PRD is a feasible approach that could be effectively utilized in tomato fields to improve plant growth and production compared with the control. Full article

The imbalanced use of fertilizers, particularly the inefficient application of nitrogen (N), has led to reduced nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), lowered crop yields and increased N losses in Nepal. This study aimed to enhance yields, NUE and farm profitability by optimizing N fertilizer rates, application timing and methods through multilocation trials and demonstrations. In 2017, 57 field trials were conducted in two mid-hill districts using a completely randomized block design. The treatments included control (CK), NPK omission (N0, P0 and K0), variable N rates (60, 120, 180 and 210 kg N ha⁻¹) and top-dressing timings (120 kg N ha⁻¹ applied at knee height and shoulder height, V6, V10 and V8 stages). A full dose of recommended P (60 kg ha⁻¹) and K (40 kg ha⁻¹) were applied at planting, while N was top-dressed in two equal splits at knee-height and shoulder-height growth stages for P and K omission treatments, as well as for treatment with variable N rates. Grain yields responded quadratically, with optimum N rates ranging from 120 to 180 kg ha⁻¹ across the districts. N applied at 120 kg ha⁻¹ and top-dressed at V6 and V10 increased maize yield by 20–25%, partial factor productivity of nitrogen (PFPN) by 12%, agronomic efficiency of nitrogen (AEN) by 21% and gross margin by 10% compared to conventional knee and shoulder height application. In 2018 and 2019, fertilizer BMPs, including V6 and V10 top-dressing and the urea briquette deep placement (UDP) were demonstrated on 102 farmers’ fields across five mid-hill districts to compare their agronomic and economic significance over traditional farmers’ practice (FP). UDP, validated in 2018 field trials, increased yields by 34% (8.8 t ha⁻¹) and urea top-dressing at V6 and V10 increased yield by 33% (8.7 t ha⁻¹) compared to FP (5.8 t ha⁻¹), reducing the average yield gap by 3.0 t ha⁻¹. Moreover, the gross margin was increased by 39% (V6 and V10) and 40% (UDP) over FP. The findings highlight the need for widespread adoption of fertilizer BMPs to close the yield gap and maximize profitability with minimal nitrogen footprint. Full article

Balanced nitrogen (N) supply is essential for high root yield in sweet potatoes (Ipomoea potatoes [L.] Lam.). A portable chlorophyll meter can support N fertilization management. Here, we determined the appropriate N sufficiency index (NSI) for sweet potato leaves to achieve the best leaf N status, plant growth, N uptake and removal, and storage root yield and quality. Experiments were conducted at three sites (Braúna, São Manuel, and Regente Feijó) in São Paulo, Brazil, using a randomized block design with four replicates. Treatments included a control (without N application), conventional N fertilization (50 kg ha⁻¹), reference N fertilization (150 kg ha⁻¹), and NSI-based N fertilization (NSI: 90% or 95%, based on the chlorophyll meter readings). Plant response to N fertilization was low, with no N deficiency observed in the conventional and chlorophyll meter-managed treatments. NSI < 90% was better than NSI < 95% for N top-dressing management, reducing N application rates by 44–66%, depending on the site. In contrast, NSI < 95% increased the N application rate without any yield benefit. Thus, monitoring N fertilization using a portable chlorophyll meter with 90% NSI can reduce N fertilization rates without negatively impacting the sweet potato root yield. Full article

In northern China, plastic-shed vegetable production significantly contributes to nitrogen (N)-induced groundwater eutrophication due to excessive fertilization and irrigation. However, the impact of optimized farming practices on N leaching has seldom been systematically examined. We conducted a four-season field study to evaluate the impacts of optimal farming measures on tomato yield, water percolation, N concentration in leachate, and total N (TN) leaching. The treatments included conventional fertilization and flood irrigation (CON), fertilization decreased by 20% and flood irrigation (OPT1) or drip fertigation (OPT2), fertilization decreased by 30% and drip fertigation (OPT3), and no fertilization with flood irrigation (CK). Compared with the CON treatment, the optimal treatments significantly reduced annual TN leaching by 9.92–50.7% without affecting tomato yield (57.1–98.2 t ha⁻¹ for CON and 48.1–106 t ha⁻¹ for three optimal treatments). Drip irrigation contributed 73.8–79.0% to the mitigation of TN leaching. The N originating from soil and irrigation water exhibited a similar contribution to TN leaching (45.4–58.6%) to that of fertilizer N. The daily TN leaching at the basal fertilization stage was much greater than that at the top-dressing stage, due to over-fertilization. Optimizing fertilization, particularly basal fertilization, in combination with drip irrigation could substantially reduce N leaching in plastic-shed vegetable production. Other optimal practices, such as decision support systems (DSSs) and fertilizer amendments, could also be investigated to further mitigate the N leaching. Full article

Sustainable nitrogen (N) fertilizer management practices in the Midwest U.S. strive to optimize crop production while minimizing N gas emission losses and nitrate-N (NO₃-N) losses in subsurface drainage water. A replicated site in upstate Missouri from 2018 to 2020 investigated the influence of different N fertilizer management practices on nutrient concentrations in drainage water, nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, and ammonia (NH₃) volatilization losses in a corn (Zea mays, 2018, 2020)–soybean (Glyince max, 2019) rotation. Four N treatments applied to corn included fall anhydrous ammonia with nitrapyrin (fall AA + NI), spring anhydrous ammonia (spring AA), top dressed SuperU and ESN as a 25:75% granular blend (TD urea), and non-treated control (NTC). All treatments were applied to subsurface-drained (SD) and non-drained (ND) replicated plots, except TD urea, which was only applied with SD. Across the years, NO₃-N concentration in subsurface drainage water was similar for fall AA + NI and spring AA treatments. The NO₃-N concentration in subsurface drainage water was statistically (p < 0.0001) lower with TD urea (9.1 mg L⁻¹) and NTC (8.9 mg L⁻¹) compared to fall AA + NI (14.6 mg L⁻¹) and spring AA (13.8 mg L⁻¹) in corn growing years. During corn years (2018 and 2020), cumulative N₂O emissions were significantly (p < 0.05) higher with spring AA compared to other fertilizer treatments with SD and ND. Reduced corn growth and plant N uptake in 2018 caused greater N₂O loss with TD urea and spring AA compared to the NTC and fall AA + NI in 2019. Cumulative NH₃ volatilization was ranked as TD urea > spring AA > fall AA + NI. Due to seasonal variability in soil moisture and temperature, gas losses were higher in 2018 compared to 2020. There were no environmental benefits to applying AA in the spring compared to AA + NI in the fall on claypan soils. Fall AA with a nitrification inhibitor is a viable alternative to spring AA, which maintains flexible N application timings for farmers. Full article

The aim of this study was to determine the nitrogen requirement of maize, the optimal timing and amount of nutrient application, based on long time series data. An additional objective was to examine the response of the relative chlorophyll content of maize to nitrogen fertilisation. The examinations were carried out in a long-term field experiment at the University of Debrecen between 2016 and 2022, using two maize hybrids with different genotypes. Spatial and temporal changes in the N status of maize leaves were monitored using the Soil and Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) instrument. In addition to the non-fertilised (A₀) treatment, six fertiliser treatments were applied (spring basal fertilisation: 60 and 120 kg N ha⁻¹, A₆₀; A₁₂₀). Basal fertilisation was followed by two occasions of top-dressing at phenological stages V6 and V12, at rates of +30–30 kg N ha⁻¹ (V6₉₀ and V6₁₅₀, and V12₁₂₀ and V12₁₈₀). The CMR (Chlorophyll Meter Reading), averaged over the examined years, genotypes and fertiliser treatments, were lowest in the V6 phenological phase (40.23 ± 5.57, p < 0.05) and highest in R1 (49.91 ± 8.41, p < 0.05). A₁₂₀ fertiliser treatment increased the relative chlorophyll content by 5.11 compared to the non-fertilised treatment, 1.67 more than A60 treatment. The basal fertilisation treatment substantially increased the yield (A₆₀: +30.75%; A₁₂₀: +66.68%) compared to the A₀ treatment averaged over years and genotypes. Based on the obtained research results, a basal treatment of 120 kg N ha⁻¹ is recommended and it can be concluded that, under appropriate water supply conditions (rainfall, irrigation), nitrogen top-dressing applied in V6 phenophase results in a significant yield increase compared to basal fertilisation. Full article

There has always been a specific focus on nitrogen fertilization in sugar beet production due to its important effect on sugar beet root yield and quality. For stable sugar beet growth and satisfactory root yield and quality, balanced N fertilization is crucial. Thus, this study aimed to investigate spring N fertilization in two seasons as the following treatments: N₀—control, N₁—only pre-sowing fertilization, and N₂—pre-sowing with topdressing. Four different genotypes were included in the study (Serenada, Colonia, Fred, and Danton). The experiment was set up in a plain area, belonging to the temperate climate zone in Eastern Croatia (Županja and Vrbanja), with the long-term mean (LTM) (March–October) air temperature around 16 °C and the total precipitation of 515 mm. Pre-sowing N fertilization had a smaller impact on root yield in the year with higher precipitation (31% higher than LTM). Therefore, the average yields with pre-sowing fertilization (N₁) and pre-sowing fertilization with top dressing (N₂) were very similar and were only 7% higher than those of the control. In a season with less rainfall (29% less than LTM), pre-sowing fertilization with top dressing (N₂) had a more pronounced effect on the increase in sugar beet root yield, which was 17% higher compared to that of the control treatment. The sugar beet sucrose content and quality parameters (brei impurities, loss of sugar in molasses, extractable sugar) differed when N fertilization was applied among locations in both seasons. The white sugar yield was the highest at N₂ treatment with pre-sowing and topdressing N fertilization. In general, according to the average of all locations and years of research, the Serenada hybrid achieved the highest average root yield (81.1 t ha⁻¹), while Colonia exhibited the highest root sugar content (14.5%) and white sugar yield (9.7 t ha⁻¹). Full article

In this study, the influence of genotype (G), environment (E), and their interaction (G × E) on the content of total free phenolic compounds (TPC) and the antioxidant capacity (AC) was investigated, using sixteen durum wheat genotypes cultivated under seven crop management systems in Mediterranean environments. Possible correlations between TPC and AC with protein content (PC) and vitreous kernel percentage (VKP) were examined. Gs that exhibited stability across diverse conditions were studied through a comprehensive exploration of G × E interaction using a GGE biplot, Pi, and 𝘒R. The results indicated significant impacts of E, G, and G × E on both TPC and AC. Across E, the mean values of G for TPC, ABTS (2’-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) values were 48.8 mg Trolox equivalents (TE)/100 g, 121.3 mg TE/100 g, 23.0 mg TE/100 g, and 88.4 mg TE/100 g, respectively. E, subjected to splitting top-dressing N fertilization, consistently showed low values, while the late-sowing ones possessed high values. Organic crop management maintained a stable position in the middle across all measurements. The predominant influence was attributed to G × E, as indicated by the order G × E > E > G for ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP, while for TPC, it was E > G × E > G. For TPC, the superior Gs included G5, G7 and G10, for ABTS included G3, G5 and G7, and for protein included G1, G9, and G16. G7 and G5 had a high presence of frequency, with G7 being the closest genotype to the ideal for both TPC and ABTS. These results suggest that the sowing time, nitrogen fertilization, and application method significantly impact the various antioxidant properties of durum wheat. This study holds significant importance as it represents one of the few comprehensive explorations of the impact of various Es, Gs, and their interactions on the TPC and AC in durum wheat, with a special emphasis on crop management and superior Gs possessing stable and high TPC and AC among them, explored by GGE biplot, Pi and 𝘒R. Further experimentation, considering the effect of the cultivation year, is necessary, to establish more robust and stable conclusions. Full article

Onion (Allium cepa) is one of the world’s most consumed, nutrient-dense foods, low in calories and containing a rich amount of major bioactive compounds, vitamins, and minerals. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of different nitrogen (N) fertilizer sources on the nutritional and phytochemical qualities of short-day onions. A white-type onion (cv. Texas Grano) was subjected to different fertilizer application treatments, namely (i) pre-plant base application of 80 kg ha⁻¹ N from CaCN₂, alone or in combination with (ii) top-dressing with 50 kg ha⁻¹ N from limestone ammonium nitrate (LAN), or (iii) top-dressing with 50 kg ha⁻¹ N from urea, (iv) pre-plant base application of 80 kg ha⁻¹ N from LAN and top-dressing with 50 kg ha⁻¹ N from LAN, (v) pre-plant base application of 80 kg ha⁻¹ N from urea and top-dressing with 50 kg ha⁻¹ N from urea, and (vi) 0 kg ha⁻¹ N. Pre-plant application of CaCN₂ (80 kg ha⁻¹ N) outperformed standard onion fertilizers, urea (130 kg ha⁻¹ N) and LAN (130 kg ha⁻¹ N), significantly enhancing total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and calcium (Ca) and potassium (K) content in onion bulbs. Applying 50 kg ha⁻¹ N from urea as top-dressing with the pre-plant application of CaCN₂ (80 kg ha⁻¹ N) elevated total phenolics (5.48 mg GAE g⁻¹) and flavonoids (0.741 mg CE g⁻¹) in the onion bulbs. The highest antioxidant activity (55.9%) and free radical scavenging activity (26.3%) were achieved with top-dressing 50 kg ha⁻¹ N from LAN following CaCN₂ pre-plant application. Application of CaCN₂ + urea also significantly increased onion bulb potassium (2335 mg kg⁻¹) and calcium (828 mg kg⁻¹) contents, while CaCN₂ combined with LAN improved magnesium (123.3 mg kg⁻¹) content. This study recommends pre-plant CaCN₂, top-dressed with either LAN or urea, for improved phytochemical components, antioxidant activities, and certain mineral content in onion bulbs. These findings present a practical approach for cultivating nutrient-rich and phytochemically abundant onion bulbs, promoting improved human health. Full article

China is currently experiencing a severe issue of excessive fertilization. Variable rate fertilization (VRF) technology is key to solving this issue in precision agriculture, and one way to implement VRF is through management zone (MZ) delineation. This study is aimed at evaluating the feasibility and potential benefits of VRF based on site-specific MZs in smallholder farm fields. This study determined the amounts of basal and top-dressing fertilizers in different spatial units, based on soil nutrient MZs and crop growth MZs, respectively. The potential agronomic, economic, and environmental advantages of spatial variable rate fertilization were further assessed by comparing the farmer’s treatment, the expert’s treatment, and the variable rate fertilization treatment based on management zones (VR-MZ). The results showed that VR-MZ reduced the use of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers by 22.90–43.95%, 59.11–100%, and 8.21–100%, respectively, and it also increased the use efficiency of N, P, and K by 12.27–28.71, 89.64–176.85, and 5.48–266.89 kg/kg, respectively, without yield loss. The net incomes of VR-MZ were 15.5–449.61 USD ha⁻¹ higher than that of traditional spatially uniform rate fertilization. Meanwhile, less nitrous oxide emission (23.50–45.81%), ammonia volatilization (19.38–51.60%), and nitrate ion leaching amounts (28.77–53.98%) were found in VR-MZ compared to those in uniform fertilization. The results suggest that the VR-MZ has great potential for saving fertilizers, significantly increasing farmers’ net income, reducing environmental pollution, and promoting the sustainable use of resources. This study provides a theoretical basis and technical support for exploring a VRF suitable for village-scale farming. Full article