Search Results (287)

The topito pepper (Capsicum chinense) is a tropical fruit of economic and gastronomic importance in the Caribbean region, valued for its nutritional content. However, this fruit is susceptible to postharvest fungal diseases, including those caused by the phytopathogenic fungus Penicillium expansum, which can degrade fruit quality and pose a health risk due to the potential presence of mycotoxins such as patulin. In this context, we evaluated the protective effects of coatings with chitosan (CS), clove essential oil (CEO), and their combination (CS+CEO) on sweet peppers stored at 12 °C for 12 days after harvest. The results indicate that the film-forming solution exhibited an acidic pH (5.33–5.44), a density of ~1.0 g/cm³, and viscosities ranging from 2.75 to 32.9 cP. Furthermore, the results indicate that coatings with CS and CS+CEO significantly reduced weight loss, preserved firmness (19.12–30.40 N), and delayed ripening. At the same time, the coatings exhibited inhibitory effects on P. expansum and aerobic mesophiles. The CS+CEO combination demonstrated the greatest inhibitory effect, indicating that it is a sustainable and effective strategy for the postharvest preservation of sweet peppers, thereby enhancing their value, preservation, and food security in the Caribbean region. Full article

The development of novel plant-based products using unconventional food matrices increases the risk of introducing mycotoxins into the food system. Biological detoxification methods, particularly those involving lactic acid bacteria (LAB), are considered sustainable and safe strategies. In this study, we screened 142 plant-derived LAB strains across 17 species for their fermentation performance and mycotoxin removal capacity during faba fermentation. Among them, 84 strains showed rapid acidification. The plating of 11 selected strains confirmed robust growth with cell densities ranging from 4 × 10⁸ to 2.18 × 10⁹ CFU/mL. Screening for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) removal in complex medium identified several strains that could reduce AFB1 in the supernatant. However, complete toxin extraction after faba fermentation indicated that AFB1 was not enzymatically degraded. Similarly, no significant degradation of ochratoxin A or zearalenone was observed during faba fermentation. Additionally, a cell binding test with 11 selected strains showed that all strains bound AFB1, with efficiencies from about 10% to 35%. Notably, Lentilactobacillus hilgardii NFICC857 demonstrated the highest binding capacity, which has never been reported before. Our study provides preliminary insight into plant-derived LAB in mycotoxin removal. Given the vast unexplored diversity of LAB in nature, the discovery of novel strains with enhanced mycotoxin-binding capacity and potential enzymatic degradation remains promising. Full article

Fiber-degrading microorganisms are widely recognized for their potential to convert renewable lignocellulosic biomass into animal feed. However, translating this potential into practical application faces five critical yet underappreciated challenges. First, current screening methods, primarily including plate dilution and Congo red staining, are low-throughput, poorly reproducible and fail to capture the synergistic actions of natural microbial consortia. Second, the lack of standardized assays for quantifying cellulolytic activity compromises the reliability of cross-study comparisons. Third, safety assessments for fiber-degrading microorganisms remain superficial, with most studies neglecting mycotoxin production, antibiotic resistance gene transfer and long-term colonization risks. Fourth, fundamental differences between fungal and bacterial degradative systems, such as enzyme multiplicity, oxygen requirements and cellulosome assembly, are rarely considered in strain selection, leading to suboptimal application outcomes. Finally, the vast majority of positive in vitro degradation results fail to translate into improved animal performance in vivo, owing to poor microbial survival in the gastrointestinal tract, mismatched enzyme activity with gut pH and temperature, coupled with the absence of dose–response validation. This review critically evaluates these five bottlenecks across fiber-degrading microorganism types, screening platforms and practical livestock production applications. Overall, future progress should depend less on discovering “novel” strains and more on establishing standardized screening pipelines, rigorous safety frameworks and mechanistic understanding of in vivo efficacy, including direct head-to-head comparisons between fungal enzymes and bacterial probiotics under identical conditions. Full article

Mycotoxins are compounds produced by the secondary metabolism of certain fungi. These compounds contaminate foods worldwide and pose a severe threat to the health of humans and animals. They also cause huge economic losses. A plethora of methodologies, encompassing agricultural, biological, chemical, and physical approaches, have been devised to curtail the presence of mycotoxins in food commodities. Among the physical processes, cold plasma (CP) has emerged as a useful technique for controlling the presence of toxigenic fungi in foods and for degrading the mycotoxins occurring in them without significantly affecting the quality and organoleptic properties of the treated commodities. The present review endeavors to demonstrate the efficacy of CP as a method of eradicating or reducing both the toxigenic mycobiota and the mycotoxins present in the most contaminated foods, including nuts, dried fruits, and cereal grains. The mechanisms of toxin degradation proposed by the different researchers are also examined and compared. Furthermore, the impact of the CP effect on the quality, sensorial characteristics, and toxicological properties of the treated food is thoroughly examined. Full article

Mycotoxins are one of the biggest threats to global food safety, public health, and economic stability. More than 400 mycotoxins have been found to be secondary metabolites of toxigenic fungi, mostly from the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria. Aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FBs), patulin (PAT), and T-2/HT-2 toxins are the most dangerous to the health of people and animals. Conventional physical and chemical decontamination methods are only partially effective and can reduce food quality, leave toxic residues, or be too expensive for smallholder food systems. Recent studies have shown that the application of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as a biological detoxification method is a safe, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly option, and has a long history of safe use in fermented foods. Selected strains or taxonomic units have been granted GRAS status by the FDA or QPS (Qualified Presumption of Safety) status by EFSA. However, their use for mycotoxin detoxification still requires strain-level safety assessment and efficacy validation in the intended food matrix. There are several mechanisms by which LAB employ to reduce the bioavailability of mycotoxins in food systems: (i) physical adsorption via cell wall components such as peptidoglycan, teichoic acids, and exopolysaccharides; (ii) enzymatic biotransformation that may produce non-toxic or less-toxic metabolites, though the safety of degradation products requires case-by-case toxicological assessment; (iii) antifungal metabolite production that inhibits fungal growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis; and (iv) competitive exclusion of toxigenic fungi during fermentation. This comprehensive review examines the existing evidence on the detoxification of major food mycotoxins by LAB, with an emphasis on mechanisms, strain-specific efficacy, food-matrix applications, and factors that affect detoxification efficacy. Discussion has also been made of translating in vitro findings to in vivo settings and food-scale applications, alongside regulatory frameworks, current challenges, and future research directions. The review also suggests ways to combine LAB with new technologies, such as encapsulation, genetic engineering, and fermentation optimization, to make food systems safer by synergistically controlling mycotoxins. Full article

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a pervasive mycotoxin contaminating global food and feed. While enzymatic degradation offers a promising, specific, and eco-friendly strategy for mycotoxin mitigation, the biotransformation of ZEN within acidic food matrices remains challenging due to the intrinsically low activity of zearalenone lactonase (ZENG). In this work, we synthesized a ZENG–hydroxyapatite (Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂) hybrid nanoflower (CaNF) via biomineralization under alkaline conditions. Compared to free ZENG, the as-prepared biohybrid nanoflower exhibited markedly enhanced acid tolerance and catalytic activity, achieving a 12-fold increase in ZEN degradation efficiency at pH 5.0. Furthermore, the biohybrid nanoflower demonstrated robust performance in various acidic food matrices, including corn juice, wort, beer, and corn steep liquor. This study presents a powerful enzymatic tool for the efficient biotransformation of ZEN in acidic food-related systems. Full article

Food deterioration is largely driven by microbial activity, particularly by fungi producing mycotoxins exhibiting mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Garlic (Allium sativum L.), valued for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, is widely recognized as a natural food preservative; however, the high moisture content and intense respiration of freshly harvested garlic accelerate enzymatic degradation of its bioactive compounds, making post-harvest processing essential to preserve its functional properties. This study evaluated the preservative potential of convectively dried garlic (50–90 °C) by testing the antifungal activity of its extracts (6.3–0.8%) against Aspergillus parasiticus, while a modeling approach was employed to quantitatively describe this phenomenon. The antioxidant activity and rehydration capacity were also analyzed. The results demonstrated that both drying temperature and extract concentration significantly influenced fungal growth kinetics. The strongest inhibition was observed for extracts from raw garlic and garlic dried at 50 °C, whereas extracts from samples dried at 70–90 °C only partially suppressed the microbial activity. Predictive modeling accurately described fungal growth (MAE = 1.9, R² = 0.995), enabling its application in optimizing food preservation strategies. Antioxidant activity was highest in raw garlic, decreased significantly in garlic dried at 50 °C, and then increased progressively with rising drying temperature. The study highlights the need to maintain a balance in drying conditions that ensures efficient drying kinetics while preserving bioactive, functional, and antifungal properties. Full article

Mycotoxin contamination is an important threat to food and feed safety as well as human and animal health, with particular emphasis on oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy, inflammation, and dysbiosis. Mycotoxins represent major health threats because they disturb cellular homeostasis and induce oxidative damage. Nutritional factors, such as dietary antioxidants and bioactive chemicals, can influence the body’s reaction to mycotoxin exposure, either reducing or increasing its effects. This study discusses how mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A) induce oxidative stress by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated DNA damage, which induces cellular damage and activates apoptosis, an intended cell death process that is critical for tissue integrity. Furthermore, mycotoxins alter autophagy, a cellular degradation process that can be beneficial or destructive depending on the situation, affecting cell survival. The inflammatory response is particularly important because mycotoxin-induced oxidative stress and cell damage activate inflammatory pathways, which contribute to tissue injury and disease progression. Nutritional factors high in antioxidants, anti-inflammatory substances (Lycopene, Curcumin, Thyme oil, Gum Arabic, and Ginger), probiotics, and prebiotics show potential in mitigating these negative consequences by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Advances in molecular biology and omics technologies (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and single-cell sequencing) can lead to better knowledge of the underlying pathways, allowing for more tailored nutritional recommendations and medicinal interventions. Finally, combining dietary modulation with mycotoxin risk management is a viable path for protecting health and increasing resilience to mycotoxin-related toxicities in animals. Full article

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a highly stable mycotoxin that can persist during conventional food processing and therefore poses a serious risk to food and feed safety. In this study, two enzymes (CotA and Prx) were heterologously expressed in Bacillus subtilis, purified by Ni–NTA affinity chromatography, and evaluated for their ability to degrade AFB₁. Both enzymes exhibited remarkable thermostability and distinct catalytic optima. CotA exhibited its highest activity at 80 °C with an AFB₁ removal of 38.4%, whereas Prx showed its highest activity at 90 °C with a removal of 82.6%. The optimal pH values were near neutral, with CotA performing best at pH 7.0 and Prx at pH 7.5, and both reactions approached maximal conversion within approximately 10 h. When the two enzymes were combined, a clear cooperative effect was observed. The mixed system achieved 91.0% AFB₁ removal at 80 °C after 10 h, with the best degradation activity occurring at a CotA to Prx ratio of 1:3. At 50 °C, neither enzyme alone caused appreciable AFB₁ degradation, but the addition of hydrogen peroxide markedly enhanced catalytic activity. Both enzymes also retained substantial activity after boiling and autoclaving. In a maize flour model, the mixed-enzyme system showed strong AFB₁ degradation capacity, and peroxide-assisted treatment further improved activity. These results establish a thermostable and peroxide-responsive enzymatic platform for AFB₁ degradation and support future development of enzyme-based detoxification strategies for food and feed applications. Product identification and toxicological validation will be needed to confirm the safety of the treated products. Full article

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a potent mycotoxin threatening food and feed safety. Here, we report the identification and characterization of a Bacillus safensis-derived multicopper oxidase (BsaMCO) capable of efficient AFB1 detoxification. Recombinant BsaMCO exhibited robust in vitro activity, achieving >78% degradation of AFB1 under 24 h incubation at 37 °C. Optimization experiments revealed that enzyme concentration, pH, temperature, metal ions, and electron acceptors significantly influenced degradation efficiency, defining an operational window suitable for practical applications. LC–MS profiling suggested the presence of transformation products tentatively consistent with oxidative demethylation to aflatoxin P1 (AFP1) and with the formation of AFG2a-like products through subsequent hydration- and oxidation-related transformations. Molecular docking and 100 ns all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations demonstrated stable binding of AFB1 in the T1 copper pocket. Van der Waals and electrostatic interactions, together with a persistent hydrogen bond at Gly323, facilitated single-electron transfer through the intramolecular T2/T3 copper cluster. Principal component and Gibbs free energy analyses confirmed a low-energy, stable conformational ensemble. HepG2 cell assays indicated that BsaMCO-degraded products substantially reduced cytotoxicity and apoptosis compared with native AFB1. Simulated feed experiments further validated enzymatic AFB1 degradation, with approximately 53% reduction after 24 h. Collectively, these findings establish BsaMCO as a safe and effective biocatalyst for AFB1 detoxification, providing mechanistic, structural, and cellular evidence supporting its application in food and feed safety. Full article

Trichothecene mycotoxins, especially T-2 toxin, represent a significant threat to food safety and public health. Although the enzymatic degradation of deoxynivalenol has been extensively investigated, there are few reports of enzymes capable of efficiently degrading T-2 toxin. This study identified that the aldo-keto reductase AKR13B3 from Devosia A6-243 exhibits 3-keto-DON-degrading and a little T-2 toxin-degrading activity. To address this limitation, a rational design strategy targeting the substrate-binding pocket was employed to enhance its activity. Utilizing site-directed and combinatorial mutagenesis, a double mutant R134F/D217A was successfully screened. R134F/D217A retains catalytic activity towards 3-keto-DON while significantly enhancing its catalytic capacity for T-2. Specifically, the R134F/D217A variant exhibited a 2.88-fold increase in catalytic activity and a 3.15-fold enhancement in catalytic efficiency (k_cat/K_m) relative to the wild type enzyme. Notably, a substantial improvement in thermal stability was also observed. After incubation at 55 °C, the residual activity of the R134F/D217A mutant was 2.63 times that of the wild type. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and three-dimensional structural modeling suggested the mechanistic basis for the enhanced performance of the R134F/D217A double mutant. Catalytic enhancement stems from a shortened nucleophilic attack distance, a positively biased electrostatic environment, combined with an enlarged pocket and reduced binding free energy. Concurrently, the increased thermal stability results from decreased flexibility and a more rigid structural architecture. This work presents the first report of AKR13B3 as an effective enzyme for T-2 toxin transformation, and its catalytic activity was significantly enhanced through rational design. Thus, a novel enzymatic strategy was proposed, and could inform future approaches to study issues related to T-2 toxin contamination. Full article

Zearalenone (ZEN), a prevalent estrogenic mycotoxin found in grains and oils, poses significant health risks due to its endocrine-disrupting properties. This study elucidates the application of a laccase-mimicking copper-tannic acid (CuTA) nanozyme as an effective catalyst for the degradation of ZEN. The CuTA nanozyme was capable of directly catalyzing the oxidation of ZEN, with optimal reaction conditions observed at a pH of 7.0 and temperatures ranging from 37 to 57 °C. The degradation products of ZEN were identified as 13-hydroxy-zearalenone (13-OH-ZEN) and 15-hydroxy-zearalenone (15-OH-ZEN). Furthermore, cytotoxicity assessments demonstrated that the CuTA nanozyme-mediated degradation of ZEN effectively reduced the hepatotoxicity of this mycotoxin. The E-screen bioassay revealed a 43.7-fold reduction in the estrogenic activity of ZEN after CuTA-mediated degradation. In corn oil, the CuTA nanozyme achieved 82% ZEN removal within 12 h and maintained 58% efficiency after four reuse cycles. These results highlight the potential use of the CuTA nanozyme to detoxify ZEN in corn oil. Full article

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a globally distributed mycotoxin that poses serious threats to food safety and human health due to its nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and carcinogenic properties. Previous enzymatic detoxification strategies for OTA have been constrained by low degradation efficiency or poor soluble expression of highly active enzymes. In this study, a bacterial strain with strong OTA-degrading activity was isolated and identified as Acinetobacter kookii AK4, which degraded 95.44% of 1 μg/mL OTA within 6 h. The predominant OTA-degrading activity was derived from intracellular enzymes. Through genome mining and experimental validation, gene2102 was identified as encoding an amidohydrolase. The enzyme was designated AMH2102 and was heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. Codon optimization combined with fusion of an N-terminal SUMO tag increased the soluble expression of AMH2102 by 14.81-fold, enabling complete (100%) OTA degradation within 3 min. Overall, this study achieved the identification of an efficient OTA-degrading strain and enzyme and explored strategies for improving enzyme expression, yielding effective outcomes that provide useful references for future studies on strain mining and enzyme engineering. Full article

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination is a significant issue for the safety of edible oils. Biodegradation of mycotoxins represents a green and efficient approach. However, enzymes exhibit low catalytic activity and stability under harsh conditions, leading to rapid deactivation in edible oils. Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) possess high specific surface areas, tunable pore sizes, and excellent thermal stability. Immobilizing enzymes on ZIFs can address the problem of enzyme inactivation during application. Although the stability of the enzyme can be enhanced after immobilization, the overall enzymatic activity remains limited. To overcome the issues of low catalytic activity and poor cycling stability associated with enzymes immobilized on ZIF-8 using 2-methylimidazole (2-mIM) as the ligand, this study optimized the ZIF structure through a ligand screening strategy. Both encapsulation efficiency and cycling stability were enhanced. This research found that the activity of Lac@ZIFs(IM), which uses imidazole (IM) as the ligand, was 2.16 times that of Lac@ZIF-8. The degradation efficiency of AFB1 reached 93% within 4 h in edible oil using Lac@ZIFs(IM) as the catalyst, which was 21-fold higher than that of free laccase. Lac@ZIFs(IM) exhibited excellent activity in the continuous flow system. After 20 h of continuous reaction, the activity of Lac@ZIFs(IM) was 6.6 times that of Lac@ZIF-8. This study provides a novel approach for the efficient enzymatic degradation of mycotoxins. Full article

Global agriculture faces unprecedented challenges, including a projected population of 10 billion by 2050, declining arable land, and the urgent need to phase out antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) to stem antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This review evaluates fermentation technology as a sustainable solution to the “food–feed–fuel” three competing land uses. We systematically compare solid-state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fermentation (SmF), highlighting their quantitative advantages: SSF offers 2–3× higher volumetric productivity and 70–90% lower water usage for solid wastes (e.g., soybean meal, wheat bran), while SmF provides superior process control for high-value products (e.g., single-cell protein). Key molecular mechanisms are discussed, including enzymatic degradation of anti-nutritional factors (up to 95% phytate and 98.8% tannin removal), mycotoxin detoxification (60–80% reduction), and biosynthesis of bioactive compounds (e.g., vitamin B12 enrichment up to 15-fold). Fermented feeds benefit many livestock species, particularly in organic and high-density farming systems, improving growth performance, gut health, and disease resistance while reducing environmental footprints. Advanced technologies such as AI-driven digital twins, CRISPR-based strain engineering, and precision fermentation are explored to overcome bottlenecks, including heat dissipation, strain stability, and process control. Despite challenges in scale-up, economics, and divergent global regulations (EU, USA, China, Southeast Asia, and Africa), fermentation is a critical biotechnological paradigm for circularity—the circular bioeconomy—and long-term food security. Future research should prioritize cost-effective large-scale implementation and the harmonization of regulatory frameworks. Full article