Search Results (394)

Background/Objectives: The effect of diet on maternal and infant genetic levels has been reported in the literature. Diet-associated DNA damage, such as the presence of micronuclei (MN), may be related to an increased risk of developing chronic diseases such as cancer. There is particular concern regarding this damage during pregnancy, as it may affect the newborn (NB). Thus, this review aims to summarize the primary evidence of the impact of diet on the frequency of MN in the mother–infant population. Methods: Five databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect) were used to search for observational studies. Google Scholar and manual searching were required to perform the “gray literature” search. Results: The search strategy retrieved 1418 records. Of these, 13 were read in full and 5 were included in the review. Most studies were of the cohort type (n = 4) and were carried out in the European region. A total of 875 pregnant women and 238 newborns were evaluated. Despite insufficient evidence to confirm that diet changes the frequency of MN, the included studies found possible effects from the consumption of fried red meat and processed meats and the adequate consumption of vegetables and polyunsaturated fats. Conclusions: Future research is needed in order to understand the effects of diet on genetic stability and to obtain evidence to help plan public policies on food and nutrition or reinforce protective dietary patterns for this and future generations. Full article

Breast milk can provide passive immunity to infants, serving as a valuable source of maternal antibodies while remaining a non-invasive sample for investigating maternal immune responses. To date, no studies have evaluated SARS-CoV-2 and potentially cross-reactive HCoV antibodies in breast milk following bamlanivimab administration. A 36-year-old postpartum female was PCR-positive for SARS-CoV-2 four days post-delivery. Bamlanivimab was administered intravenously two days later. Breast milk was collected before bamlanivimab infusion, daily for two weeks post-infusion, then weekly until 102 days post-infusion. Mother and infant sera were collected only at 102 days post-infusion. All milk and serum samples were tested for IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and HCoV. We observed two distinct SARS-CoV-2 antibody peaks at days 3 and 29 post-infusion, likely representing bamlanivimab transfer and the post-infection antibody response. Beta-HCoV antibodies showed two peaks at days 6 and 29, potentially representing backboosted beta-HCoV responses and/or antibody cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV-2. Infant seropositivity for SARS-CoV-2 102 days post-infusion may represent antibodies from passive transfer via breastfeeding or a subclinical infection. This case highlights the value of breast milk as a non-invasive and repeatable sample to help understand maternal immune responses post-infection, exogenous antibody infusion, and passive antibody transfer during breastfeeding, which can provide insights into maternal–infant health research. Full article

Inherited epidermolysis bullosa (EB) is a heterogeneous clinical entity that includes over 30 phenotypically and/or genotypically distinct inherited disorders, characterized by mechanical skin fragility and bullae formation. Junctional EB (JEB) is an autosomal recessive disease characterized by an intermediated cleavage level within the skin layers, commonly at the “lamina lucida”. Laryngo-onycho-cutaneous syndrome (LOC) is an extremely rare variant of JEB, characterized by granulation tissue formation in specific body sites (skin, larynx, and nails). Although most cases of JEB are caused by pathogenic variants occurring in the genes encoding for classical components of the lamina lucida, such as laminin 332 (LAMA3, LAMB3, LAMC2), integrin α6β4 (ITGA6, ITGB4), and collagen XVII (COL17A1), other variants have also been described. We report the case of a 4-month-old male infant who presented with recurrent bullous and erosive lesions from the first month of life. At the first dermatological evaluation, the patient was agitated and exhibited hoarse breathing, a clinical sign suggestive of laryngeal involvement. Multiple polygonal skin erosions were observed on the cheeks, along with similar isolated, roundish lesions on the scalp and legs. Notably, nail dystrophy and near-complete anonychia were evident on the left first and fifth toes. Due to the coexistence of skin erosions and nail dystrophy in such a young infant, a congenital bullous disorder was suspected, prompting molecular analysis of all potentially involved genes. In the patient’s DNA, clinical exome sequencing (CES) identified a pathogenic variant, apparently in homozygosity, in the exon 1 of the LAMA3 gene (18q11.2; NM_000227.6): c.47G > A;p.Trp16*. The presence of this variant was confirmed, in heterozygosity, in the genomic DNA of the patient’s mother, while it was absent in the father’s DNA. Subsequently, trio-based SNP array analysis was performed, revealing a paternally derived pathogenic microdeletion encompassing the LAMA3 locus (18q11.2). To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of JEB with a LOC-like phenotype caused by a maternally inherited monoallelic nonsense mutation in LAMA3, unmasked by an almost complete deletion of the paternal allele. The combined use of exome sequencing and SNP array is proving essential for elucidating autosomal recessive diseases with a discordant segregation. This is pivotal for providing accurate genetic counseling to parents regarding future pregnancies. Full article

Background/Objectives: Cesarean delivery often leads to delayed breastfeeding initiation, potentially affecting infant health compared with vaginal delivery. This prospective observational study (conducted between August 2022 and January 2024) comparatively evaluates the impact of delivery method—vaginal, planned cesarean, and emergency cesarean—on breastfeeding initiation and continuation and examines the maternal factors influencing these outcomes. Materials and Methods: We enrolled 338 mother–infant pairs at a tertiary university hospital. Breastfeeding effectiveness was assessed using the Bristol Breastfeeding Assessment Tool (BBAT) at birth and at one, three, and six months postpartum. Rates of breastfeeding continuation and formula supplementation were documented through structured interviews. Results: The mothers who delivered vaginally had a significantly higher rate of breastfeeding within one hour after birth (85.5%) compared with planned (57.9%) and emergency cesarean sections (64.9%) (p < 0.001). Baseline BBAT scores were higher for vaginal births but converged across the groups by one month postpartum (p > 0.05). At six months, breastfeeding continuation rates remained high (94.4–95.2%) irrespective of delivery method. Conclusions: Delivery method exerts a transient effect on breastfeeding initiation. With lactation support, the mothers delivering by cesarean section achieved comparable breastfeeding outcomes within the first month postpartum. These findings reinforce the importance of Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) practices, including immediate skin-to-skin contact, effective pain management, and lactation counseling, in ensuring equitable breastfeeding outcomes. Full article

Background: Prematurely born newborns with low birth weight constitute a group of patients who require special care from the first days of life. Prematurity and low birth weight affect about 13.4 million infants. Risk factors include placental disorders but also factors related to the mother, such as smoking, alcohol drinking, drug use, malnutrition, or certain diseases. It is imperative to educate women of reproductive age (15–49) about the basic factors influencing embryonic development, such as oral health, diet, medicine intake, and harmful habits. Even though most women are aware of the negative impact of harmful habits on the fetus, still too little attention is paid to oral health in pregnant women. Poor oral health may influence the well-being of the future mother, as well as of the child. Therefore, women of reproductive age and those who are pregnant must have adequate knowledge on this subject. The aim of this study was to assess the knowledge of Polish women of reproductive age (15–49) regarding oral health during pregnancy, including the impact of dental treatment, oral hygiene, and maternal oral conditions on pregnancy outcomes and the health of the newborn. Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study of 508 women, in the reproductive age, whose age ranged from 18 to 49 years old. The surveys were conducted from April 2020 to November 2020. The questionnaire was originally developed based on the available literature and consisted of seven sections: basic information, general health and habits, pregnancy status and dental care, knowledge of treatment options during pregnancy, oral health status and its association with the risk of preterm birth, prematurity and the child’s oral health, and breastfeeding and oral development. Results: After excluding incomplete questionnaires, a total of 499 questionnaires were included in the analysis. Women participating in the study had a fairly good understanding of the impact of oral health on the fetus and the role of breastfeeding in the development of the stomatognathic system (from 50% to 70% correct answers). However, even though most respondents had completed higher education (344/68.94%), their knowledge of oral health, preterm birth, and low birth weight was very limited (including the impact of inflammation on the intrauterine development of the child or bacteria and transfer across the placenta). In these sections, the percentage of correct answers ranged from less than 20% to 50%. When analyzing knowledge by age, education, number of births, and place of residence, the highest levels of knowledge were observed among respondents with higher education, particularly those aged 27–32. Conclusions: Respondents had a fairly good understanding of the general impact of oral health during pregnancy and recognition of the importance of breastfeeding for infants. However, their knowledge about the impact of bacteria and inflammation in the mother’s oral cavity on prematurity and low birth weight was limited. Therefore, educating women of reproductive age and pregnant women on this topic is essential, as it may help reduce the adverse consequences of prematurity. Full article

Background/Objectives: Caesarean section (CS) accounts for over 20% of global births and routinely involves perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis (PAP) to reduce surgical site infections. While the impact of such prophylaxis on neonatal microbiome development is well described, effects on the maternal gut microbiome remain underexplored. This systematic review synthesizes current evidence on how antibiotic prophylaxis during CS affects maternal gut microbiome composition and diversity—an underrepresented, but clinically relevant aspect of maternal–fetal medicine. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in Medline (PubMed), the Cochrane Library, and the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) through November 2024. Inclusion criteria were defined according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Eligible studies used molecular techniques to report maternal gut microbiome outcomes (alpha- and beta-diversity). The search concentrated on beta-lactam antibiotics. Reference lists were screened, but no additional grey literature was searched. Synthesis followed the Synthesis Without meta-analysis (SWiM) approach. No review protocol was registered. The review received no external funding. Results: Out of 1011 records, three studies (total 286 mothers) met the inclusion criteria. All reported maternal microbiome outcomes secondarily to infant-focused research. Only one study provided pre- and post-birth stool samples. Applied antibiotic regimens, sequencing methods, and reported microbiome metrics for alpha- and beta-diversity varied considerably, thus limiting comparability of results. Due to high heterogeneity, no formal risk of bias was assessed. While taxonomic diversity changes were inconsistent, significant shifts in functional diversity metrics were observed postpartum. Conclusions: Evidence on maternal microbiome disruption following perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis in CS is methodologically fragmented and limited by small sample sizes and inconsistent antibiotic protocols. Nonetheless, functional diversity appears sensitive to antibiotic exposure. To improve clinical understanding and safety, maternal-focused studies using standardized protocols are urgently needed. The maternal microbiome may play a key role in both recovery and shaping the newborn’s early microbial environment. Full article

Background/Objectives: Infantile hemangioma (IH) is a common vascular tumor in neonates, influenced by multiple prenatal and perinatal factors. This study aimed to identify risk factors in both infants and mothers, assess their link to clinical characteristics and severity, and evaluate treatment outcomes when systemic propranolol therapy was administered. Methods: We conducted a retrospective observational study analyzing 43 infants under 12 months, including 11 neonates (<28 days) diagnosed with IH. Maternal and neonatal factors, diagnostic timelines, clinical presentation, and treatment efficacy were examined. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, focusing on gestational age, birth weight, Apgar scores, and the Infantile Hemangioma Referral Score (IHReS). Results: The study found a female predominance and a correlation between IH and pre-term birth (50%) and low birth weight (<2760 g, 51.16%). Maternal anemia (23%) and gestational hypertension (9%) were present in the cohort, but no statistical association with IH severity was found. A significant number (44.18%) were diagnosed within the first two weeks postpartum. The IHReS was inversely correlated with Apgar scores, with newborns scoring above 8 having a lower IHReS. Treatment with propranolol (1–3 mg/kg/day) was highly effective, resulting in significant lesion regression in most patients. Mild complications included sleep disturbances (12%) and diarrhea (9%). The most affected areas were the face/eyelid (32.55%), limbs (18.6%), and anterior thorax. Additionally, 42% of cases had an IHReS above 4, with multiple hemangiomas increasing severity. Conclusions: IH was common in pre-term and low-birth-weight infants, whereas the maternal comorbidities observed in this small cohort did not show a definitive association, underscoring the need for controlled studies. Early diagnosis, risk stratification, and timely propranolol therapy are crucial in achieving favorable outcomes. Further research is needed to assess long-term effects and evaluate risks of treatment rebound. Full article

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are involved in metabolism and physiological processes. We decided to investigate whether SCFAs are engaged in the metabolic programming of the offspring by the mother’s microbiota, which interact during pregnancy, delivery, and breastfeeding. We decided to determine whether there are correlations between 4-week-old infant feces SCFA concentrations, their weight at birth, and mothers’ anthropometric measurements. The study included 82 women with four-week-old newborns from whom stools were collected. SCFAs were determined using gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector. Correlations were observed between SCFA content in newborns’ feces and mothers’ weight and body mass index (BMI) before delivery and at the time of delivery. In addition, associations were identified between weight gain of pregnant women and SCFAs. Analysis of neonatal data showed associations between fatty acid content and infants’ weight and diet, including breastfeeding. We provide indirect evidence for the association of infant SCFA levels with metabolic programming by maternal gut microbiota metabolites. At the same time, we confirm the influence of increased SCFA levels on higher maternal and neonatal body weight and branched-chain short-chain fatty acids (BCFAs) on neonatal body weight. We provide new preventive and intervention directions for future efforts to improve the health care of pregnant women and their offspring. Full article

Background: Neonatal influenza is a rare condition. Young infants have immature immune defenses and are unable to receive direct vaccination; this can result in significant illness. Maternal anti-influenza immunization during pregnancy provides passive antibodies to the newborn via transplacental transfer, significantly decreasing the incidence and severity of influenza in early infancy. Nevertheless, the vaccination coverage during pregnancy remains low in many regions, leaving certain neonates without adequate protection. Methods: We present three cases of laboratory-confirmed influenza infection in neonates admitted to the “Sf. Ioan” Clinical Emergency Pediatric Hospital in Galați and conduct a literature review. The clinical presentation, co-infections, timing of antiviral therapy, laboratory findings, maternal vaccination status, and outcomes (including the hospitalization duration and recovery) were systematically analyzed for each case. Results: All three neonates were full-term and previously healthy, born to mothers who had not received influenza vaccinations during their pregnancies. They presented at ages ranging from 2 to 4 weeks with fever, respiratory symptoms including a cough, nasal congestion, and respiratory distress, as well as feeding difficulties. One case involved a co-infection with Bordetella pertussis, which manifested as a severe paroxysmal cough, cyanosis, and apnea. Laboratory findings in the cases with influenza alone indicated leukopenia accompanied by normal C-reactive protein levels. In the co-infection case, leukocytosis, lymphocytosis, and thrombocytosis were observed. All the infants received oseltamivir treatment within 48 h of the symptom onset; the case with pertussis co-infection also received azithromycin. Each infant required supplemental oxygen, but none necessitated mechanical ventilation. Clinical improvement was observed in all cases, with hospitalization ranging from 6 to 7 days and complete recovery without complications. Conclusions: Neonatal influenza may result in considerable morbidity, particularly in infants born to unvaccinated mothers. Positive outcomes, however, have been correlated with early diagnosis and antiviral treatment. Pertussis co-infection may exacerbate clinical progression, underscoring the importance of maternal immunization against both influenza and pertussis. In this case series, we aim to present three cases of laboratory-confirmed influenza in neonates born to mothers who were not immunized against influenza during pregnancy. These cases highlight the clinical presentations of neonatal influenza, underscore the risks associated with pertussis co-infection, and reinforce the importance of maternal influenza and Tdap vaccination for preventing severe outcomes in newborns. Full article

Background/Objectives: Calprotectin and intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (IFABP) may reflect the intestinal maturation process of very preterm infants (VPI) but have also been associated with gut inflammation. To establish normative values for fecal calprotectin (FC) and urinary intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (uIFABP) in VPI and to study their correlations with demographic and clinical factors. Methods: A cohort of VPI (born before or at 32.0 weeks of gestation) was recruited in two neonatal intensive care units. Urine and fecal samples were collected at 1, 4 and 8 weeks of life to measure urinary IFABP (normalized to creatinine as uIFABP/Cr) and FC, respectively. UIFABP was determined by ELISA and FC by fluoroenzyme immunoassay. Results: 194 newborns had at least one valid biomarker measurement. The study cohort mean gestational age was 28.9 ± 2.3 weeks and mean birth weight 1178 ± 365 g. Although uIFABP/Cr concentrations differed between the two centres, they were negatively correlated with gestational age, with a statistically significant correlation observed in both centres at week 4 (Hospital Clínic: Spearman’s rho −0.500; p = 0.000 and Hospital Sant Joan de Déu: Spearman’s rho −0.474; p = 0.000). Conversely, FC showed a positive significant correlation at the same time point (Spearman’s rho 0.302; p = 0.006). At week one, FC increased with antibiotic exposure (28 mcg/g of stool per antibiotic day, 95%CI 3–57; p = 0.028). FC at week 4 was inversely correlated with mother’s own milk (MOM) exposure during the first month (Spearman’s rho −0.253; p = 0.023). Conclusions: uIFABP/Cr and FC are associated with gestational age at 4 weeks and FC is also influenced by antibiotic treatment and MOM exposure. Full article

Background: Maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) has been linked to childhood growth. However, its effects on growth delay at different early life stages are not well understood. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and growth delay in Korean children, using data from the National Health Screening Program for Infants and Children. Methods: Data from 258,367 children born between 2014 and 2021 who underwent health screenings at both 18–24 and 30–36 months of age were analyzed. Maternal BMI within three years before childbirth was classified into five categories: <18.5, 18.5–22.9 (reference), 23–24.9, 25–29.9, and ≥30 kg/m². Growth delay was defined as measurements below the 10th percentile for height, weight, and head circumference. Adjusted relative risks (RRs) were estimated using regression models controlling for maternal age, comorbidities, and perinatal factors. Results: An increased risk of height growth delay was observed with higher maternal BMI, and this association persisted at both 18–24 and 30–36 months. In contrast, maternal underweight was not significantly associated with a height delay. Low maternal BMI was associated with underweight status in children. Head circumference growth delay was linked to both high and low maternal BMI; children of mothers outside the normal BMI range had an increased risk. Conclusions: Maternal pre-pregnancy obesity and underweight were associated with growth delays in height, weight, and head circumference in children up to 36 months of age. These findings underscore the importance of individualized weight management before pregnancy. Full article

Background/Objectives: Despite ongoing national interventions, pockets of acute malnutrition persist in rural settings of South Africa, contributing to disproportionate rates of child morbidity and mortality. This study aimed to identify risk factors associated with acute malnutrition among under-five children attending primary healthcare facilities in Msinga, KwaZulu-Natal Province, with a specific focus on dietary diversity and selected infant and young child feeding indicators. Methods: A cross-sectional, facility-based study was conducted among 415 mother–child pairs attending five randomly selected PHC facilities in the Msinga sub-district. Participants were selected using a multistage sampling design from a sampling frame of 18,797 under-five children. Of the 551 mother–child pairs approached; the final analytic sample comprised 415 observations. Data were collected through structured interviews, anthropometric assessments, and dietary diversity scores (DDS). Data were analyzed using Stata 18, and Poisson regression was applied to identify risk factors. Results: The prevalence of acute malnutrition was 29% based on weight-for-height/length z-scores (WHZ/WLZ) and 27% based on mid–upper-arm circumference z-scores (MUACZ). Children aged ≥36 months had significantly higher prevalence of acute malnutrition (aPR = 1.62; 95% CI: 1.15–2.10). Children from households with five or more members had reduced risk (aPR = 0.66; 95% CI: 0.45–0.74), and those born full-term showed a strong protective association (aPR = 0.39; 95% CI: 0.23–0.64). Maternal age was associated with reduced risk, with children of mothers aged 25–34 years (aPR = 0.67; 95% CI: 0.48–0.93) and ≥35 years (aPR = 0.58; 95% CI: 0.35–0.84) experiencing significantly lower prevalence. Mixed feeding was significantly associated with reduced risk (aPR = 0.86; 95% CI: 0.55–1.17), while a DDS ≥4 was protective (aPR = 0.41; 95% CI: 0.04–0.84). Consumption of protein-rich foods was notably low, with only 21% consuming flesh foods and 10% consuming eggs. Conclusions: Acute malnutrition in under-five children was significantly associated with poor diet quality, older age, low household income, and mixed feeding practices. Protective factors included full-term pregnancy, larger households, older maternal age, and adequate dietary diversity, highlighting the importance of targeted, multisectoral interventions. Full article

Objective: To comprehensively evaluate the interaction between diet quality and multivitamin intake during pregnancy on offspring neurodevelopment. Methods: This analysis was grounded in mother-child dyads from the 3D Cohort Study in Quebec, Canada. Among the 2366 participants initially enrolled in the 3D study, 1535 women successfully completed the 3-day food record during 20–24 weeks of gestation. A Canadian adaptation of the Healthy Eating Index (HEI-C) 2010 was used to quantify diet quality. The total HEI-C score was dichotomized into low and high diet quality by median split. Cognitive and motor development in childhood were assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III). Language abilities were measured using the toddler short-form version of the MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventories (MCDI) questionnaire, administered in either English or French. After excluding participants with missing covariate data, cognitive, motor, and language development scores at 2 years of age were available for 1066, 1040, and 981 children, respectively. Multiple linear regression models were employed to calculate adjusted effect estimates. The interaction on an additive scale was assessed by incorporating a product term into the linear regression model. Results: Statistically significant interactions were detected between diet quality and multivitamin intake in relation to the cognitive and language development outcomes of the offspring (interaction p-values were 0.018 and 0.023, respectively). The lowest cognitive and language scores were observed in the group of women who neither took multivitamins nor maintained a high-quality diet. Among women not taking multivitamins, a high-quality diet was associated with improved offspring cognitive and language scores (mean difference [95% CI] = 4.2 [0.1, 8.2], p = 0.04; and 11.3 [3.1, 19.5], p = 0.01, respectively). However, among women taking multivitamins, no such associations were identified. Conversely, in participants with a low-quality diet, multivitamin intake was associated with a 3.0-point increase in cognitive composite scores (95% CI: 0.3, 5.8, p = 0.03), but this was not the case for those with a high-quality diet. No statistically significant interactions were observed between maternal diet quality and multivitamin intake for motor development outcomes. Conclusions: Adequate nutritional supply during pregnancy, achieved either through a high-quality diet or multivitamin supplementation, is fundamental for the neurodevelopment of children. Full article

Background: In Japan, new challenges are emerging, such as declining birth rates, an increase in age at childbirth, postpartum depression, and child abuse. Methods: This study examines the factors influencing maternal consultation behavior at public institutions using some of the data from the Japan COVID-19 and Society Internet Survey (JACSIS). A total of 6227 women (1380 pregnant and 4847 postpartum) were analyzed through logistic regression. Results: The results showed different factors influencing consultations between pregnant women and postpartum women. Among pregnant women, different trends were observed between primigravidae and multigravidae, indicating that primigravidae aged ≥40 years and multigravidae with multiple childbirths tend to seek consultations more frequently. In postpartum women, psychological distress (K6), adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), and social support networks significantly influenced consultation behavior. Postpartum women with extensive support networks (≥3 confidants) exhibited higher consultation rates. In contrast, those with elevated Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and Mother-to-Infant Bonding Scale (MIBS-J) scores were less likely to seek help, potentially due to mental health stigma. Conclusions: This study showed that pregnant and postpartum women facing physical, mental, family, or relationship issues are seeking consultations and receiving thorough support. On the other hand, since some pregnant and postpartum women refrained from seeking consultation, it is necessary to further consider support measures that make it easier for all pregnant and postpartum women to seek advice in the future. Full article

Background/Objectives: Lactating mothers have increased nutritional requirements, but nutritional adequacy is difficult to achieve. Additionally, human milk (HM) composition depends on maternal diet. However, the nutritional intake and status of mothers with hospitalized very preterm infants (MHVPIs) (<32 weeks of gestational age) have rarely been assessed. Hence, the aim of the present study was to determine the intake of macronutrients, micronutrients, and lipids, as well as the nutritional status of MHVPIs. The results were compared with a group of HM donors (HMDs), and associations with HM composition were evaluated using multiple linear regression. Methods: For dietary assessment, a 5-day dietary record including supplement intake was completed by 15 MHVPIs and 110 HMDs. Vitamins and fatty acids (FA) were determined in plasma and erythrocytes; minerals and methylmalonic acid were determined in urine; and macronutrients, vitamins, minerals, and the lipid profile were determined in HM. Results: Considering dietary reference intakes, the dietary evaluation of MHVPIs revealed a high percentage of inadequate nutrient intake in relation to total energy, as well as for iodine and vitamins B8, B9, C, D, and E. A high protein intake was observed. The percentage of energy from carbohydrates was low, whereas the percentage of energy from fat was high. However, the diet of MHVPIs did not differ substantially from the diet of HMDs. Associations were observed between the study groups (MHVPI vs. HMD) and the HM concentration of protein, several micronutrients, and fatty acids independent from intake and status. Conclusions: Deficient nutrient intakes did not appear to be exclusively related to MHVPI but rather seemed to be widespread in both study groups. However, for preterm infants, an insufficient supply of nutrients is critical and should be addressed in order to improve preterm infant’s outcomes. Furthermore, we provided additional insights into the exploration of HM by relating its composition to prematurity. Full article