Search Results (59)

This scoping review investigates the digital transition of critical energy infrastructure (CEI) in maritime ports, which are increasingly vital as energy hubs amid global decarbonisation efforts. Recognising the growing role of ports in integrating offshore renewables, hydrogen, and LNG systems, the study examines how digital technologies (such as automation, IoT, and AI) support the resilience, efficiency, and sustainability of port-based CEI. A multifaceted search strategy was implemented to identify relevant academic and grey literature. The search was performed between January 2025 and 30 April 2025. The strategy focused on databases such as Scopus. Due to limitations encountered in retrieving sufficient, directly relevant academic papers from databases alone, the search strategy was systematically expanded to include grey literature such as reports, policy documents, and technical papers from authoritative industry, governmental, and international organisations. Employing Arksey and O’Malley’s framework and PRISMA-ScR (scoping review) guidelines, the review synthesises insights from 62 academic and grey literature sources to address five core research questions relating to the current state, challenges, importance, and future directions of digital CEI in ports. Literature distribution of articles varies across continents, with Europe contributing the highest number of publications (53%), Asia (24%) and North America (11%), while Africa and Oceania account for only 3% of the publications. Findings reveal significant regional disparities in digital maturity, fragmented governance structures, and underutilisation of digital systems. While smart port technologies offer operational gains and support predictive maintenance, their effectiveness is constrained by siloed strategies, resistance to collaboration, and skill gaps. The study highlights a need for holistic digital transformation frameworks, cross-border cooperation, and tailored approaches to address these challenges. The review provides a foundation for future empirical work and policy development aimed at securing and optimising maritime port energy infrastructure in line with global sustainability targets. Full article

Sri Lanka typically experiences anomalously wet conditions during the summer following El Niño events, but this response varies due to El Niño complexity. This study investigates the impact of post-El Niño conditions on Sri Lanka’s Monsoon rainfall, contrasting summers after fast- and slow-decaying El Niño events. Results indicate that fast-decaying El Niño events lead to wet and cool summers while slow-decaying events result in dry and warm summers. These contrasting responses are linked to sea surface temperature (SST) changes in the central to eastern Pacific. During the fast-decaying El Niño, the transition to La Niña generates strong easterlies in the central and eastern Pacific, enhancing moisture convergence, upward motion, and cloud cover, resulting in wetter conditions over Sri Lanka. During the fast-decaying El Niño, enhanced precipitation over the Maritime Continent acts as a diabatic heating source, inducing Gill-type easterly wind anomalies over the tropical Pacific. These winds promote coupled feedbacks that accelerate the transition to La Niña, strengthening moisture convergence and upward motion over Sri Lanka. Conversely, slow-decaying El Niño events are associated with cooling in the western North Pacific and warming in the Indian Ocean, which promotes the development of the western North Pacific anticyclone, suppressing upward motion and reducing cloud cover, leading to conditions over Sri Lanka. Changes in the Walker circulation further contribute to these distinct rainfall patterns, highlighting its influence on regional climate dynamics. These findings enhance our understanding of the seasonal predictability of rainfall in Sri Lanka during post-El Niño Summers. Full article

This paper delves into sustainability and energy policies influencing the governance and dynamics of global maritime trade. Resilience and sustainability are also discussed, along with the obstacles encountered and strategies to overcome them. The analysis underscores the importance of developing long-term strategies and participatory processes, focusing on government involvement in promoting structural changes towards a more sustainable seaborne transport system. Part of our research is also dedicated to outlining the different factors influencing this industry among different continents, highlighting the need for increasingly unified governance frameworks internationally. By incorporating resilience theory and new technologies, with a high potential in terms of GHG emission reduction, governments and firms can better engage stakeholders, ensure business resilience, and address climate change risks. This study concludes that ports have significant power in driving structural change, and modernization across various areas—such as digitalization, energy policies, safety, green fuels, environmental sustainability, and effective coordination—is essential for their continued development. Full article

The impact of the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) and Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) on the dynamics of major sudden stratospheric warmings (SSWs) observed in the winters of 2018, 2019, and 2021 is investigated. Using data from the MERRA-2 reanalysis, we analyze the daily mean variability of critical atmospheric parameters at the 10 hPa level, including zonal mean polar cap temperature, zonal mean zonal wind, and the amplitudes of planetary waves 1 and 2. The results reveal dramatic increases in polar cap temperature and significant wind reversals during the SSW events, particularly in 2018. The analysis of planetary wave (PW) amplitudes demonstrates intensified wave activity coinciding with the onset of SSWs, underscoring the pivotal role of PWs in these stratospheric disruptions. Further examination of outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) anomalies highlights the influence of QBO phases on tropical convection patterns. During westerly QBO (w-QBO) phases, enhanced convective activity is observed in the western Pacific, whereas the easterly QBO (e-QBO) phase shifts convection patterns to the maritime continent and central Pacific. This modulation by QBO phases influences the MJO’s role during SSWs, affecting tropical and extra-tropical weather patterns. The day-altitude variability of upward heat flux reveals distinct spatiotemporal patterns, with pronounced warming in the polar regions and mixed heat flux patterns in low latitudes. The differences observed between the SSWs of 2017–2018 and 2018–2019 are likely related to the varying QBO phases, emphasizing the complexity of heat flux dynamics during these events. The northern annular mode (NAM) index analysis shows varied responses to SSWs, with stronger negative anomalies observed during the e-QBO phase compared to the w-QBO phases. This variability highlights the significant role of the QBO in shaping the stratospheric and tropospheric responses to SSWs, impacting surface weather patterns and the persistence of stratospheric anomalies. Overall, the study demonstrates the intricate interactions between stratospheric dynamics, QBO, and MJO during major SSW events, providing insights into the broader implications of these atmospheric phenomena on global weather patterns. Full article

The fight against climate change is one of the main global challenges of our time, and the European Union (EU) seeks to achieve climate neutrality and energy transition for the continent by 2050 through various policies. This research studies the economic implications of the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) on European ports. By analysing various maritime scenarios, the study assesses how the ETS influences shipping routes, port competitiveness, and overall economic activity. A key finding is that the ETS imposes significant additional costs on shipping companies, which could lead to adjustments in routes and a shift in cargo volumes to ports in regions with less stringent environmental regulations. This could result in job losses in European port communities and reduce the competitiveness of European ports. In addition, the potential for carbon leakage, where shipping activities are simply relocated to regions with fewer emission controls, is explored. Full article

The impact of the southerly surge’s interaction with the MJO on rainfall in this study was investigated using daily rainfall data from 2140 weather-observation stations. The southern surge, which coincided with the MJO, enhanced rainfall in the western research region, with Yogyakarta seeing the greatest increase at 4.69 mm/day. Meanwhile, the southern surge that occurred without the MJO increased rainfall in the eastern region, with West Nusa Tenggara seeing the greatest rise at 3.09 mm/day. However, the southerly surge has the effect of lowering rainfall in Jakarta, reaching −2.21 mm/day when the MJO is active and −1.58 mm/day when the MJO is inactive. The southerly surge causes extreme rainfall to only occur in a small part of certain areas, so it tends to significantly reduce the possibility of extreme rainfall. In the southern part of the Indonesian maritime continent, the southerly surge predominates over the MJO, supporting increased water vapor transport. Rainfall mostly increases in the afternoon and decreases in the morning when the southerly surge occurs, whether there is the MJO or not. Convective instability analysis indicates that SS increases precipitation, most likely by raising vertically integrated moisture flux convergence, with a correlation coefficient value of 0.82. Full article

Previous studies suggested that spring precipitation over the tropical western Pacific Ocean can influence the development of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). To identify crucial precipitation patterns for post-spring ENSO evolution, a singular value decomposition (SVD) method was applied to spring precipitation and sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies, and three precipitation and ENSO types were obtained with each highlighting precipitation over the Maritime Continent (MC) or western north Pacific (WNP). High MC spring precipitation corresponds to the slow decay of a multi-year La Niña event. Low MC spring precipitation is associated with a rapid El Niño-to-La Niña transition. High WNP spring precipitation is related to positive north Pacific meridional mode and induces the El Niño initiation. Among the three ENSO types, ocean current and heat content behave differently. Based on these spring precipitation and oceanic factors, a statistical model was established aimed at predicting winter ENSO state. Compared to a full dynamical model, this model exhibits higher prediction skills in the winter ENSO phase and amplitude for the period of 1980–2022. The explained total variance of the winter Niño-3.4 index increases from 43% to 75%, while the root-mean-squared error decreases from 0.82 °C to 0.53 °C. The practical utility and limitations of this model are also discussed. Full article

The maritime route connecting the Chinese continent and the Japanese archipelago facilitated a significant exchange of commercial goods and sociocultural knowledge throughout the Southern Song dynasty. Within this context, Japanese pilgrim monks traveling along this route acted as key conduits for the transmission of Buddhist teachings. Their journeys profoundly influenced the establishment and development of new Buddhist monasteries in Japan. Focusing on biographical accounts that portray the experiences of these pilgrim monks during their twelfth- and thirteenth-century sea voyages, this paper aims to explore how these accounts drew on intertextual links with existing Buddhist records to fulfill the compilers’ intentions. Specifically, this paper examines the structure and sources of biographical accounts detailing miraculous encounters between pilgrim monks and Buddhist deities during perilous situations at sea. By interpreting the role of these deities in the corpus of Buddhist literature and within Japanese Buddhist monasteries founded by pilgrim monks, this paper argues that the increasing emphasis on pilgrim monks’ attainment of divine protection in their biographical records suggests a growing concern for reinforcing the authority of their dharma lineages. Moreover, the composition and reception of these miraculous accounts reflected the changing religious needs and reshaped strategies for promoting specific Buddhist sects in subsequent periods. Full article

Maritime transportation is vital for the movement of cargo between different continents and distant locations but can be disrupted by the frequent occurrence of pirate attacks. Based on the pirate attacks from July 1994 to December 2019, a spatial analysis of pirate attacks using a Geographic Information System (GIS) was conducted in the present study using the data available for tankers, dry bulk carriers, container vessels, general cargo vessels, and tugs. The adoption of the kernel density analysis was intended to identify the spatial pattern of global pirate attacks. The research results demonstrated that the pirate attacks showed a clustering pattern and were mostly associated with areas experiencing economic depression, a high unemployment rate, and social unrest. Accordingly, spatiotemporal hot spot analysis was carried out to recognize the changing directions of cold spots and hot spots over a period of time. The waters off Somalia, the Strait of Malacca, the Philippines, the Bay of Bengal, the Gulf of Guinea, and the northwest of South America were found to be the common locations of pirate attacks. The cold and hot spots of pirate attacks on the three key vessel types, including tankers, dry bulk carriers, and container vessels, were found to be similar. When considering the same area, the trends of cold and hot spots of different vessel types being attacked were substantially different. This study can provide a useful guideline for the International Maritime Organization and other relevant organizations in the world to design and implement targeted strategies to combat and mitigate pirate attacks. Additionally, the introduction of a GIS may help to envision the spatial and temporal distribution of pirate attacks and to explore the characteristics of pirate behaviors at sea and the patterns of piracy. Full article

Communities of the East African coast have had a long history of international interaction. Swahili maritime networks linked African port towns across the Indian Ocean seaboard, thus enabling merchandise to reach the hinterlands of the continent. One of these Swahili towns is the ancient city of Gedi, located on the central Kenyan coast near the medieval town of Malindi. Located inshore, 6 km from the main ocean to the southeast and 3 km from Mida Creek to the southwest, Gedi’s lack of seaward connectivity has perplexed scholars. To effectively function within the vibrant Indian Ocean maritime trade networks of the 10th to 16th centuries CE, Gedi needed access to the sea. Inevitably goods had to be transported overland from a port or landing place. The ‘MUCH to Discover in Mida Creek’ project carried out an archaeological survey around the Creek to form a broader understanding of the region’s maritime past. The study identified a range of sites that evidence past coastal activity. In particular, a concentration of contemporary house sites at Chafisi near the closest point on the Creek to Gedi would suggest it may have acted as an outport for the stone town. Full article

As the natural environment continues to deteriorate, countries have begun to shift their emphasis to sustainable development, and the study of green shipping—as the main realization of international trade—is an important prerequisite for global sustainable trade. This paper measures the green maritime transport efficiency considering greenhouse gas emissions using the Super-slacks-based measurement (Super-SBM) method, then extrapolates the theoretical model of trade decision covering maritime transport efficiency and maritime transport distance based on the transcendental logarithmic utility function. A panel econometric model based on this theoretical model was constructed, and then the trade effects of green maritime transport efficiency and its transmission mechanism were studied empirically based on the data of 60 sample countries (regions) in five continents from the years 2010 to 2020. The study shows that green maritime transport efficiency significantly promotes China’s foreign trade through three channels: promoting technological progress, reducing trade costs and curbing environmental deterioration. Additionally, this effect tends to be stronger for countries that are IMO members and have higher incomes. This article’s research helps to provide new empirical evidence to explain the growth of international trade. Full article

Based on the monthly mean reanalysis data from NCEP/NCAR (National Centers for Environmental Prediction/ National Center for Atmospheric Research) and GPCP (Global Precipitation Climatology Project) (1979–2020), the regional characteristics of precipitation in the warm pool side of the Maritime Continent (MC) and the relationships between different precipitation patterns and atmospheric circulations are studied. The results show that there are significant correlations as well as differences between the precipitation in the east of the Philippines (area A) and that in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands (area B). Precipitation in area A is closely related to the eastern Pacific ENSO (El Nino-Southern Oscillation) and EAP/PJ (East Asia-Pacific/Pacific-Japan) teleconnection pattern, while precipitation in area B is linked to the Indian Ocean basin-wide and the South China Sea summer monsoon. When the precipitation anomaly in area A is positive, the East Asian summer monsoon is weak. A cyclone appears to the northwest of area A at 850 hPa with convergence airflow. After filtering out the effects of precipitation in area B, the cyclone retreats to the west, and an anticyclone appears to the southeast of area A. When the precipitation is above normal in area B, the circulation and water vapor transportation are similar to that in area A but more to the east. The updraft and downdrafts to both north and south sides of area B form two closed meridional vertical circulations. When the influence of area A is moved out, the circulation center in the warm pool area moves eastward. This research contributes to a better understanding of the regional characteristics of the Maritime Continent and the East Asian summer monsoon. Full article

This study examines the impact of regional data assimilation on diurnal characteristics of precipitation and winds over the Maritime Continent (MC) using a set of cloud-permitting-scale (~3 km) numerical simulations with the mesoscale community Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model and the NCEP Gridpoint Statistical Interpolation (GSI)-based ensemble-3DVAR hybrid data assimilation system. Numerical experiments focus on January 2018, when a well-defined, active Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) propagated through the MC region. Available conventional and satellite data are assimilated. Results show that simulated precipitation with data assimilation generally agrees better with satellite-derived rainfall than the control simulation without data assimilation. Simulations with data assimilation also reproduce the diurnal cycle of precipitation better, especially for the timing of the precipitation peak. Data assimilation modulates the overstrong (overweak) diurnal forcing over the land (ocean) in the control simulation. The vertical phase shift of the thermodynamic environment, associated with the timing of vertical motion transition along with low-level water vapor supplies, results in maximum precipitation occurring later, especially over land. To further demonstrate the impact of data assimilation, an additional experiment assimilates NASA Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS)-derived ocean surface winds. The results indicate that the assimilation of CYGNSS data exhibits an evident impact on the diurnal variation of surface variables and a similar shift in the diurnal cycle of precipitation. Overall, this study highlights the importance of regional data assimilation in improving the representation of precipitation over the MC, paving the way for a better understanding of the interactions of local diurnal convective precipitation cycles with MJO. Full article

The sea level trend in the equatorial Malacca Strait is a significant issue that needs to be reviewed since it is an area of interest. Assessing its future impact on estuarine tidal characteristics is worth studying because it relates to the potency of coastal damages. This study aimed to discuss the relationship between sea level variations and anomalies and their possible triggering factors and to estimate the future impacts on the tidal properties in the estuarine zone. Tide gauge and altimetry data in the Tanjong Pagar site were used to assess the sea level trends over 27 years of observation (from 1992 to 2019). Both altimetry and tide gauge data showed an upward trend, with 0.24 cm/year and 0.39 cm/year, respectively. Due to the near-equatorial area of interest, sea level variability is more synchronized with ENSO rather than IOD. At some points, ENSO shapes the sea level fluctuation, with an R² of less than 10%. For specific periods, the coupling effects between MJO and La Niña may trigger higher evaporation in the maritime continent, triggering increasing sea levels. Of particular concern, among the other assessed factors, the zonal currents and winds (wind-driven currents) are strongly correlated with sea level variations, primarily during the NE monsoon and the second transitional periods, with a determination coefficient of about 18–36%. As a result of sea level rises, it is estimated that tidal constituent amplitudes will increase by about 8.9% and 18.3% in 2050 and 2100, respectively. The increase in tidal range will possibly relate to the tidal bore passage in the Kampar estuary. Therefore, more advanced hydrodynamic modeling is necessary to determine the impact of sea level rises on tidal bore generation. Full article

The Balkan Peninsula is a geographical region under various large-scale climatic influences, one of the most significant being the Mediterranean Sea in the southwest and the continent in the northeast. The novelty of this study is that the border between the zones with prevailing maritime or continental climate conditions is clearly identified by the month with the highest precipitation during the year. We use the gridded data product TS_4.06 of the Climatic Research Unit for monthly precipitation to identify the timing of the maximum rainfall at different locations. The grid boxes with highest precipitation in the cold part of the year (October to March) are considered to be under prevailing Mediterranean influences and, on the contrary, the ones with the highest precipitation are in the warm part of the year (April to September); these are climates with prevailing continental characteristics. In general, this border separates the zones with Cs and Dw types of climates. Its spatial variability at a decadal time-scale is discussed for the period from 1901–2021 and a general weakening of the Mediterranean influence over the Balkan Peninsula is found. However, for the last three decades, from 1991–2021, the tendency is the opposite. A periodicity of ~20 years is identified, suggesting that during the decade of 2020–2030, the Mediterranean influence in this region will dominate. Full article