Search Results (225)

Background: Morphological characteristics influence physical performance in youth basketball, but their effects may differ by developmental stage. This study compared the predictive role of morphological variables on motor performance between U13 and U15 male players. Methods: Male youth basketball players (N = 89) were assigned to U13 and U15 groups. Morphological variables included height, body mass, body fat percentage, and fat-free mass (FFM). Motor tests evaluated squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), 10 m and 20 m sprints, T-test, Y-test and Stop-and-Go change-of-direction speed and reactive agility (RA). Pearson correlations and multiple linear regressions assessed relationships and predictive effects. Results: In U13 players, several morphological variables correlated with performance: height and FFM were positively related to jumping and sprinting, while body fat was negatively associated with most measures (p < 0.05). Regression models explained substantial variance in sprint (ranging up to _AdjR² = 0.44) and jump performance (ranging up to _AdjR² = 0.32), though individual predictors were not always significant (p > 0.05). In U15 players, fewer associations emerged as body fat remained a significant negative predictor of jumping and agility, and greater body mass was associated with improved sprint performance (p < 0.05). No significant morphological predictors were found for RA in either group (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Morphological traits exert a stronger, multifactorial influence on performance in younger athletes, whereas body composition and particularly body fat are more influential in older adolescents. These results underscore the need to consider the developmental stage when assessing and training male youth basketball players. Full article

This article presents a practical framework for implementing, collecting, and interpreting inertial measurement unit (IMU) foot pod data to improve diagnostic understanding of baseball base running mechanics. Linear sprinting is used as a baseline, whereas the home-to-second-base sprint trial is used to examine how that capacity is expressed when athletes negotiate curvilinear running demands. The purpose is not to establish generalized performance outcomes, but to illustrate how IMU-derived spatiotemporal variables may be interpreted across successive base running segments in applied settings. Three competitive baseball players were selected from a larger dataset of n = 54 base runners tested using the same protocol with distinct home-to-second-base performance profiles as follows: the fastest case (Player X), an intermediate case (Player Y), and the slowest case (Player Z) were selected based on total home-to-second-base time. The cases were selected purposively to demonstrate the application of the IMU interpretation framework, including ground contact time (GCT), stride length (SL), push-off acceleration, and impact acceleration. Particular emphasis is placed on how curvilinear demands alter inside- and outside-foot function, and how segment-to-segment comparisons may help practitioners identify phases in which base runners maintain, reorganize, or lose mechanical efficiency. Compared with broader velocity-based approaches, the IMU framework provides complementary step-level information that may help practitioners generate hypotheses about how base runners organize movement across linear and curvilinear segments. These examples are intended to demonstrate a workflow for applied interpretation rather than to establish causal mechanisms. As a result, IMU foot pod analysis may offer practitioners a structured and portable method for interpreting curvilinear sprint mechanics, yet these case examples should be understood as descriptive rather than prescriptive. Full article

Adolescent footballers exhibit smaller change of direction (COD) deficits than adults, suggesting distinct biomechanical profiles; however, the role of physical performance variables in COD, considering maturation and injury-related factors, remains poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the relationships between sprint, jump, and COD performance, maturation status, and injury-related variables in young male footballers. Fifty-six national-level players (age: 16.67 ± 0.86 years) performed unilateral vertical and horizontal jump tests, 20 m linear sprint tests, and 180° COD assessments. Maturation status was estimated using peak height velocity (PHV), and injury incidence and severity were recorded over one competitive season. Associations were observed between PHV and sprint performance during the initial acceleration phase (0–10 m; p < 0.01). Unilateral jump measures were associated with sprint and COD performance, whereas inter-limb asymmetries showed limited associations with performance outcomes. Horizontal jump performance was also associated with the percentage-based COD deficit (%CODD). With respect to injury-related variables, injury incidence was associated with countermovement jump (CMJ) measures, with greater CMJ asymmetry being associated with higher injury incidence, while both unilateral CMJ variables were retained in the regression model. Overall, these findings suggest that biological maturation and unilateral neuromuscular performance may be relevant factors associated with youth football performance, whereas inter-limb asymmetry appears to play a more limited role; CMJ-related measures may warrant further consideration in relation to injury incidence in adolescent footballers. Full article

Background/Objectives: Pickup acceleration refers to acceleration initiated from a non-static start and can be described as a function of Approach, Transition, and Pickup steps. Given the forward-leaning posture adopted during the Transition and Pickup steps, it was hypothesized that estimated step horizontal force (SFh) production would be a key determinant of pickup acceleration ability. Methods: Forty-eight male athletes performed four 30 m pickup sprints at LED-guided entry velocities of 1.5 m/s (walking) and 3.0 m/s (jogging), with spatiotemporal data collected via a horizontal linear position transducer. Athletes were grouped as “fast” or “slow” based on maximal acceleration (a_max) and were compared at time points/steps using Bonferroni-adjusted independent t-tests. Results: Across both entries, faster athletes achieved significantly higher a_max (~13–17%) and maximum velocity (v_max; ~7–8%). At 1.5 m/s, the faster group produced significantly greater SFh during the Transition and Pickup steps (~33–34%), resulting in longer step lengths (SL; ~12%), higher step acceleration (Sa; ~16–23%), and higher step velocities (Sv; ~4–9%). At 3.0 m/s, SFh and Sa remained greater (adjusted p ≤ 0.01) in the faster group (~23–41%; 25–32% respectively) but produced fewer significant kinematic differences. It would seem that “faster” pickup acceleration is likely associated with greater SFh across the transition and first pickup steps; this increase in force may influence kinematics during a walking entry, but its influence is less apparent during a jogging entry. It is possible that at higher entry velocities, other technical/mechanical factors may become more important, necessitating a more advanced technological approach to studying pickup acceleration than that used in this study. Full article

Background/Objectives: The purpose of this proof-of-concept study was to examine the effects oligosaccharide 6′-sialyllactose (6′-SL) supplementation (900 mg/d) during training on exercise performance and training adaptations in recreationally active males. Methods: In a randomized, double-blind design, 19 healthy males (24.4 ± 6.0 yrs, 174.9 ± 5.9 cm, 82.0 ± 15.2 kg, 27.1 ± 4.7 kg/m², 26.4 ± 6.9% body fat) ingested 3 × 300 mg/d of a placebo or 6′-SL for 12 weeks while partaking in a supervised resistance-training program while following their normal diet. Body composition (DXA), body water, submaximal lactate and substrate oxidation, 5RM dynamic muscular strength, ventilatory anaerobic threshold (VANT), peak aerobic capacity (VO₂), blood lactate, cycling anaerobic sprint capacity, and fasting blood samples were obtained at week 0, 6, and 12 of training and supplementation. Data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate general linear models (GLM) with repeated measures, along with assessments of mean changes from baseline and corresponding 95% confidence intervals. Results: Both groups observed positive training adaptations with no significant differences observed between groups in body composition, 5RM dynamic strength, or anaerobic sprint capacity. Significant interaction effects were observed VANT (p = 0.032), VO₂ at VANT (p = 0.028), and submaximal glucose and fat oxidation (p = 0.034) while time to reach peak VO₂ (p = 0.083), absolute (p = 0.075) and relative (p = 0.057) peak VO₂ approached significance. At Week 6, changes in time to peak effort (196 s [−16, 409], p = 0.068), absolute (0.76 L/min [−0.005, 1.53], p = 0.051) and relative (10.9 mL/kg/min [0.52, 21.5], p = 0.045), and fat oxidation (20.5% [3.1, 37.9], p = 0.023) were significantly greater in the 6′-SL group while VANT (−9.2% [−18.3, −0.04], p = 0.049), VO₂ at VANT (−4.8% [−9.8, 0.2], p = 0.06) and submaximal glucose oxidation values (−20.5% [−37.9, −3.1], p = 0.024) were lower with 6′-SL. After 12 weeks of training, VANT (−9.7% [−17.7, −1.5], p = 0.023) and VO₂ at VANT (−6.4% [−11.8, −1.0], p = 0.024) values were significantly lower in the 6′-SL group. No significant differences were observed in resting, submaximal, or maximal exercise blood lactate while the ratios of LDL to HDL (−0.27 [−0.53, −0.01], p = 0.042) and total cholesterol to HDL (−0.32 [−0.60, −0.04], p = 0.028) decreased significantly from baseline after 6 weeks of training with 6′-SL. Conclusions: 6′-SL supplementation did not promote greater gains dynamic strength, fat free mass or changes in body composition. However, while there was some evidence that 6′-SL supplementation influenced training-induced changes in aerobic capacity during the first six weeks, fewer effects were observed after 12 weeks. Moreover, several differences only approached significance in this small proof-of-concept study, so results should be viewed as exploratory and hypothesis generating for additional research. Full article

This systematic review aimed to evaluate the tests used to assess neuromuscular performance in adult female basketball players and to provide evidence-based recommendations for practice and future research. Following PRISMA guidelines and registered in PROSPERO (CRD42025638889), four databases were systematically searched from inception to April 2026. A total of 62 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis and 39 in the quantitative analysis. The most frequently reported assessments examined anthropometry, muscular power, linear speed, change-of-direction (COD) performance, strength, anaerobic capacity, and aerobic capacity. However, substantial variability was observed in testing protocols, outcome variables, and reporting methods. Across studies, performance outcomes showed considerable overlap between competition levels, suggesting that competitive standard alone is not a reliable indicator of neuromuscular performance. Differences in anthropometric characteristics and physical performance were largely influenced by playing position and contextual factors. A key finding was the predominant reliance on outcome-based metrics (e.g., jump height, sprint time), with limited use of force–time variables that provide deeper insight into neuromuscular function. In addition, important methodological limitations were identified, including inconsistent testing procedures, lack of standardized reporting, and the absence of female-specific considerations such as menstrual cycle status. To address these limitations, this review proposes a practical testing framework that integrates reliable, sport-specific, and time-efficient assessment methods. Future research should prioritize the implementation of standardized protocols, the inclusion of force–time analysis, and the development of large-scale descriptive datasets specific to female basketball players. These advances are essential to improve performance monitoring, optimize training prescription, and enhance injury risk management in this population. Full article

Purpose: Field-based tests are widely used to assess propulsion and sprint performance in wheelchair athletes; however, their ability to discriminate between functional performance profiles associated with different impairment characteristics remains insufficiently explored. This study evaluated the discriminative capacity of propulsion, sprint, and manoeuvrability tests in elite wheelchair court athletes. Methods: Nineteen male elite athletes (ten wheelchair basketball, nine wheelchair rugby) performed the initial maximum push-rim propulsion (IMPRP), a 12 m linear sprint (3, 5, and 12 m splits), and a wheelchair manoeuvrability test (3L3R). Test reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Results: Test reliability was high across all assessments (ICC ≥ 0.82). The higher functional performance profile group demonstrated substantially greater IMPRP mechanical outputs, including mean velocity (ES = 2.69), maximum velocity (ES = 3.29), mean power (ES = 1.75), and maximum power (ES = 2.09) (all p < 0.001). Sprint performance also showed large between-group differences at 5 m (ES = 1.53) and 12 m (ES = 1.68) (p < 0.001), whereas manoeuvrability differences were moderate (ES = 0.62; p = 0.043). Conclusions: IMPRP and short-distance sprint tests appeared sensitive to differences between ecologically distinct wheelchair court sport athletes characterised by different real-world functional performance profiles. These field-based assessments may be useful for performance monitoring and may complement ecologically distinct athlete groups in wheelchair court sports. Full article

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and small-sided games (SSG) are popular conditioning tactics in team sports, but their relative efficiency among female basketball players is uncertain. The aim of this study was to examine and compare the effects of a six-week HIIT and SSG intervention on the physical performance of elite female basketball players. Forty-four participants (20.98 ± 4.58 years) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: HIIT (n = 14), SSG (n = 14), or control (n = 16). Pre- and post-intervention evaluations assessed sprint performance (0–10, 0–20, 0–30 m), agility (Pro-agility, Zig-zag, 9-6-3-6-9 tests), vertical jump height (CMJ, CMJA, SJ), repeated sprint ability (RSA), and aerobic capacity (VO₂max, VIFT, MAS). HIIT and SSG significantly improved all performance measures compared to the control group (p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.365–0.809); however, there were no significant differences between the two experimental groups. HIIT had a slightly greater effect on linear sprinting, but SSG was more effective for agility and aerobic performance. Body composition remained unchanged. These data suggest that HIIT and SSG are both effective training methods for improving speed, agility, explosive power, RSA, and aerobic capacity in female basketball players. Incorporating both strategies into an organized training program can improve sport-specific performance and overall conditioning. Full article

Background: Sleep hygiene protocols (SHPs) have been shown to improve sleep and stress regulation; however, the role of cortisol in shaping downstream physiological and performance adaptations remains unclear. This study primarily examined the effects of a short-term SHP on sleep duration and salivary cortisol responses across resting, pre-exercise, and post-exercise states in female collegiate soccer players and, secondarily, whether cortisol statistically mediated selected aerobic and anaerobic performance outcomes. Methods: Fourteen players (22.1 ± 3.3 y; 157.8 ± 6.0 cm; 53.5 ± 3.9 kg) completed a randomised, counterbalanced crossover study comparing habitual sleep (no sleep hygiene protocol; nSHP) with a comprehensive SHP incorporating environmental, behavioural, and educational strategies. Salivary cortisol was sampled one hour post-waking and 30 min pre- and 15 min post-exercise during standardised testing sessions. Performance outcomes included vertical jump, sprint performance (40 m and repeated sprints [RAST]), and the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1. Linear mixed-effects models assessed cortisol responses, and mediation analyses explored cortisol–performance relationships. Results: After SHP, perceived (7.87 h vs. 6.5 h; p = 0.002, ESg = 1.0) and calculated sleep duration (8.5 h vs. 6.9 h; p = 0.004, ESg = 0.95) increased significantly. Cortisol was markedly lower following SHP at selected timepoints, including before RAST (−43.05%, p = 0.006, ESg = 0.84), with additional timepoint-specific, condition-dependent differences post-anaerobic and post-aerobic exercise (Δ = 7.37 and 5.98 nmol·L⁻¹, respectively; p < 0.001). Vertical jump height demonstrated significant total (9.92 cm, p = 0.002) and direct effects (7.72 cm, p = 0.034), and peak repeated-sprint performance showed a significant direct effect (p = 0.026). Cortisol did not significantly mediate any performance outcomes (ACME p > 0.05). Conclusions: Short-term sleep hygiene is associated with increased sleep duration, timepoint-specific modulation of cortisol responses, and selected anaerobic performance benefits; however, these effects were not explained by measured cortisol responses and are unlikely to be sustained without ongoing reinforcement or support, particularly in athletic populations. Full article

Background: This study aimed to investigate the extent and time course of peripheral neuromuscular fatigue of the knee extensors following different concurrent training protocols in recreationally active men. Methods: In a randomized, counterbalanced, crossover design, ten participants completed one exercise session of three concurrent exercise protocols in consecutive weeks and in similar resting conditions: traditional concurrent training (TCT), sprint interval training (SIT), and high-intensity resistance circuit training (HRC). Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and electrically evoked tetanic force of the knee extensors were assessed before, immediately after, and at 24 and 48 h following each exercise session. Linear mixed models were used to examine the differences among exercise modalities and time points. Results: No significant changes were found in MVIC force following HRC and TCT at any time point (p > 0.05), while significant declines were observed post-exercise (p = 0.015), 24 h (p = 0.001) and at 48 h (p = 0.003) after SIT. Moreover, MVIC force was significantly lower for SIT than HRC at 48 h (p = 0.001). Tetanic force significantly declined in SIT from pre-exercise to post-exercise (p = 0.034), with significant differences when compared to HRC (p = 0.003) and TCT (p = 0.003). HRC and TCT induced no knee extensor fatigue, contrary to a single session of SIT. Conclusions: Peripheral fatigue seemed to prevail following SIT in comparison with HRC and TCT, as seen by the decreased tetanic force in the former only. From an applied perspective, practitioners should carefully plan training activities to be performed the days following a SIT session, as force-generating capacity may be impaired for up to 48 h. Full article

To compare hurdle-resisted sprint training (EGH), sled-resisted training (EGS), and hurdles-only training (CG) on performance and kinematics using a smallest-effect-size-of-interest (SESOI) framework, fifteen U18 female hurdlers (16.3 ± 1.3 years) were randomized to EGH, EGS, or CG (n = 5 each) for a 7-week intervention (7 microcycles). EGH used individualized resistance (10% velocity decrement), while EGS used fixed ~13% body-mass resistance. Outcomes included 30 m hurdle time (30 mH), Technique Index, and exploratory kinematics. Primary analysis used baseline-adjusted robust ANCOVA with permutation and linear mixed models (LMM) as sensitivity checks. A smallest-effect-size-of-interest (SESOI) of −0.066 s (~1.2%) was pre-specified. Adjusted ANCOVA favored EGH over CG (−0.19 s; 95% CI [−0.45, 0.06]; p = 0.11). The point estimate exceeded the SESOI, though the CI captured both meaningful and trivial effects. Sensitivity analyses maintained this directional pattern, but LMM estimates varied in magnitude, suggesting model dependence. The EGH–EGS contrast was smaller and uncertain (−0.15 s; p = 0.10). Exploratory baseline-adjusted kinematic contrasts showed no clear differences at the first hurdle, but highlighted nominal differences in the EGH group at the second hurdle (greater take-off distance, p = 0.030) and third hurdle (shorter flight and landing times, p < 0.05), which should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating. In this preliminary trial, the data are compatible with a range of effects from negligible to practically meaningful for hurdle-resisted sprint training relative to both control and sled-resisted conditions. All estimates are accompanied by wide compatibility intervals, precluding confirmatory conclusions. These findings establish protocol feasibility, provide estimation-based preliminary evidence with openly available individual-level data, and motivate adequately powered multi-center replication trials. Full article

Introduction: Monitoring training load is essential in elite soccer to optimize performance and reduce injury risk. The training-to-match load ratio (TMr) has emerged as a useful metric to contextualize training demands relative to competitive match exposure. The objective of this study was to compare daily and accumulated TMr between starters and non-starters over a professional season, considering microcycle day and playing position. Methods: Twenty players (Tier 3) from a professional team were monitored during a full competitive season (30 microcycles; 144 training sessions; 30 matches). External load variables, namely total distance (TD), high-speed distance (HSD), sprint distance (SPD), high metabolic load distance (HMLD), acceleration (ACC) and deceleration (DCC), were collected using 10 Hz GPS devices (STATSports). Daily and microcycle TMr were calculated relative to each player’s maximal match value registered during a full competitive period. Linear mixed-effects models examined the effects of starting status, microcycle day, and playing position. Results: Linear mixed models revealed significant three-way interactions (status × day × position) for locomotor variables: TD (F = 3.36, p < 0.001), HSD (F = 2.49, p < 0.001), and SPD (F = 3.37, p < 0.001). Starters accumulated higher loads on match day, whereas non-starters showed higher TMr on MD + 1 and MD + 2. Position-specific differences emerged during acquisition sessions (i.e., MD − 5 to MD − 3), particularly for wide midfielders (WMs) and central defenders (CDs). No significant three-way interactions were observed for ACC, DCC, or HMLD absolute loads (p > 0.05), nor for any accumulated microcycle TMr metrics (p > 0.05). Conclusions: TMr effectively differentiates preparation strategies between starters and non-starters. Although “top-up conditioning” sessions increase early-week relative loads for non-starters, position-specific variations–particularly in mechanical variables during acquisition sessions–highlight the need for individualized load prescription. Full article

Base running performance in baseball depends on the ability to efficiently transition between linear and curvilinear sprinting; however, current assessment approaches provide limited insight into how speed is developed, maintained, or lost across these phases. This perspective presents a methodological framework for using GPS technology to enhance the analysis and interpretation of base running performance through segment-specific velocity and time diagnostics. GPS data were collected during 54.7 m linear sprints and home-to-second-base curvilinear sprints in three high-school baseball players with differing performance profiles. Sprint paths were divided into standardized linear (L1–L4) and curvilinear (C1–C4) segments, allowing examination of speed changes between successive phases to identify acceleration, maintenance, and deceleration patterns. Comparative case analyses illustrate how athletes differ in their ability to negotiate the curve around first base, reaccelerate toward second base, and maintain speed under increasing curvilinear demands. In addition, a base running efficiency ratio (BREr) is introduced to quantify how effectively linear sprint capacity is preserved during curvilinear base running, both globally and across early and late phases of the sprint. The three players’ data illustrated that GPS-derived velocity–time profiles may provide useful insights into individual running strategies, path selection, and segment-specific performance limitations that are not captured by traditional timing methods. Rather than establishing normative benchmarks, this paper emphasizes the applied value of GPS technology as a diagnostic tool to potentially inform individualized assessment and monitoring in applied settings related to linear and curvilinear sprint performance in baseball. Full article

Objective: This randomized controlled trial aimed to investigate how volume-matched unilateral and bilateral jump training affects physical performance in prepubertal and pubertal male youth soccer players and to examine whether maturational status influences these training adaptations. Methods: Sixty-five male soccer players (age 10.5 ± 2.9 years; height 136.7 ± 17.8 cm; body mass 32.8 ± 8.6 kg; maturity offset −1.6 ± 1.0 years) completed an 8-week training program (two sessions/week). Participants were randomly assigned to a bilateral jump group (n = 22), unilateral jump group (n = 22), or control group (n = 21). Performance was evaluated in a single testing session, which included horizontal jump tests (bilateral standing long jump and single-leg hop distance), linear sprint tests over 10 m (acceleration) and 30 m (maximal sprint performance) using timed trials, and change-of-direction (COD) ability assessed via a standardized timed COD test. Results: Significant main effects of time, maturation, and time × group interactions were observed for all outcomes (p ≤ 0.013). A maturation × group interaction was found for bilateral jump performance (p = 0.045), a group effect for 10 m sprint time (p = 0.015), and a time × maturation × group interaction for COD performance (p < 0.001). Both training groups had improved jump performance (jump distance) and 10 m sprint time across maturity levels, while no changes were observed in the control group. For 30 m sprint time, improvements were observed in both training groups in prepubertal players, whereas only the unilateral group showed improvements in pubertal players. COD performance (completion time) improved in the unilateral group at both maturity levels and in the bilateral group at the pubertal level. Conclusions: Structured jump training enhances horizontal jump distance, sprint performance, and COD ability in youth soccer players. Adaptations appear to be influenced by training modality and maturation, although these effects may vary depending on the specific performance task. Full article

Introduction: This study investigated heart rate variability (HRV) and perceived recovery status (PRS) in relation to sprint performance in competitive athletes involved in sprint events. A secondary aim was to explore potential gender-based differences in these relationships. Methods: Fifty-six sprint-trained athletes (21 males, 35 females; age 16–21) participated in a 5-day in-season microcycle. Daily morning HRV was measured using Polar H10 chest straps and the HRV4Training app, with the root mean square of successive differences (LnRMSSD) used as the primary HRV marker. Perceived recovery was assessed each morning using the PRS scale. On each day, athletes completed 20 m maximal sprint tests. Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine the relationships between LnRMSSD, PRS, gender, and sprint performance while accounting for repeated measurements within athletes. Results: Linear mixed-effects modeling revealed that LnRMSSD was a significant negative predictor of sprint time (β = −0.019, p = 0.003), indicating that higher parasympathetic activity was associated with faster sprint performance. PRS was also a significant negative predictor of sprint performance (β = −0.014, p = 0.008). Conclusions: Daily recovery markers were associated with sprint performance in competitive sprint athletes, with potential gender-specific patterns that should be interpreted cautiously. Both LnRMSSD and PRS were significantly associated with sprint performance, highlighting the relevance of combining physiological and subjective recovery markers in athlete monitoring. Full article