Search Results (221)

This article examines the seismic assessment and strengthening of a traditional load-bearing masonry structure subjected to strong motion data, with particular emphasis on the effects of soil–structure interaction (SSI). The case study is the Archaeological Museum of Lemnos (AML)—a three-storey building with a composite load-bearing system of timber-framed stone masonry. Over time, the structure has undergone irreversible modifications, primarily involving reinforced concrete (RC) interventions. The building’s seismic performance was evaluated using two finite element models developed in the SAP2000 software (v. 25.3.00). The first model simulates the original structure, strengthened by grout injections, while the second represents the current condition of the structural system following RC additions. Soil–structure interaction was also investigated, given that the local soil is classified as Category D according to Eurocode 8 (EC8). Each model was analyzed under two different support conditions: fixed-base and SSI-inclusive. A suite of appropriate accelerograms was applied to both models, in compliance with Eurocode 8 using the SeismoMatch software, and linear time-history analyses were conducted. The results underscore the significant impact of SSI on the increase of peak tensile stress and interstorey drift ratios (IDRs), and highlight the influence of different strengthening techniques on the seismic response of historic load-bearing masonry structures. Full article

Adobe churches are representative of Andean architectural heritage, yet their structural vulnerability to seismic events remains a significant concern. This study evaluates the seismic performance of the 17th-century Church of Santo Tomás de Aquino in Rondocan, Peru, an adobe building that underwent conservation work in the late 1990s. The assessment combines in situ inspections and experimental testing with advanced nonlinear numerical modeling. A finite-element macro-model was developed and calibrated using sonic and ambient vibration tests to replicate the observed structural behavior. Nonlinear static (pushover) analyses were performed in the four principal directions to identify failure mechanisms and to evaluate seismic capacity using the Peruvian seismic code. Kinematic limit analyses were conducted to assess out-of-plane mechanisms using force- and displacement-based criteria. The results revealed critical vulnerabilities in the rear façade and lateral walls, particularly in terms of out-of-plane collapse, while the main façade exhibited a higher capacity but a brittle failure mode. This study illustrates the value of advanced numerical simulations, calibrated with field data, as effective tools for assessing seismic vulnerability in historic adobe buildings. The outcomes highlight the necessity of strengthening measures to balance life safety requirements with preservation goals. Full article

Masonry industrial buildings, common in the 19th and 20th centuries, represent a significant architectural typology. These structures are crucial to the study of industrial archeology, which focuses on preserving and revitalizing historical industrial heritage. Often left neglected and deteriorating, they hold great potential for adaptive reuse, transforming into vibrant cultural, commercial, or residential spaces through well-planned restoration and consolidation efforts. This paper explores a case study of such industrial architecture: a decommissioned factory near Naples. The complex consists of multiple structures with vertical supports made of yellow tuff stone and roofs framed by wooden trusses. To improve the building’s seismic resilience, a comprehensive analysis was conducted, encompassing its historical, geometric, and structural characteristics. Using advanced computer software, the factory was modelled with a macro-element approach, allowing for a detailed assessment of its seismic vulnerability. This approach facilitated both a global analysis of the building’s overall behaviour and the identification of potential local collapse mechanisms. Non-linear analyses revealed a critical lack of seismic safety, particularly in the Y direction, with significant out-of-plane collapse risk due to weak connections among walls. Based on these findings, a restoration and consolidation plan was developed to enhance the structural integrity of the building and to ensure its long-term safety and functionality. This plan incorporated metal tie rods, masonry strengthening through injections, and roof reconstruction. The proposed interventions not only address immediate seismic risks but also contribute to the broader goal of preserving this industrial architectural heritage. This study introduces a novel multidisciplinary methodology—integrating seismic analysis, traditional retrofit techniques, and sustainable reuse—specifically tailored to the rarely addressed typology of masonry industrial structures. By transforming the factory into a functional urban space, the project presents a replicable model for preserving industrial heritage within contemporary cityscapes. Full article

The crystallization of soluble salts is one of the most significant agents of deterioration affecting porous building materials in historical architecture. This process not only compromises the physical integrity of the materials but also results in considerable aesthetic, structural, and economic consequences. Soluble salts involved in these processes may originate from geogenic sources—including soil leachate, marine aerosols, and the natural weathering of parent rocks—or from anthropogenic factors such as air pollution, wastewater infiltration, and the use of incompatible restoration materials. This study examines the role of capillary rise as a primary mechanism responsible for the vertical migration of saline solutions from the soil profile into historic masonry structures, especially those constructed with calcareous stones. It describes how water retained or sustained within the soil matrix ascends via capillarity, carrying dissolved salts that eventually crystallize within the pore network of the stone. This phenomenon leads to a variety of damage types, ranging from superficial staining and efflorescence to more severe forms such as subflorescence, microfracturing, and progressive mass loss. By adopting a multidisciplinary approach that integrates concepts and methods from soil physics, hydrology, petrophysics, and conservation science, this paper examines the mechanisms that govern saline water movement, salt precipitation patterns, and their cumulative effects on stone durability. It highlights the influence of key variables such as soil texture and structure, matric potential, hydraulic conductivity, climatic conditions, and stone porosity on the severity and progression of deterioration. This paper also addresses regional considerations by focusing on the context of Spain, which holds one of the highest concentrations of World Heritage Sites globally and where many monuments are constructed from vulnerable calcareous materials such as fossiliferous calcarenites and marly limestones. Special attention is given to the types of salts most commonly encountered in Spanish soils—particularly chlorides and sulfates—and their thermodynamic behavior under fluctuating environmental conditions. Ultimately, this study underscores the pressing need for integrated, preventive conservation strategies. These include the implementation of drainage systems, capillary barriers, and the use of compatible materials in restoration, as well as the application of non-destructive diagnostic techniques such as electrical resistivity tomography and hyperspectral imaging. Understanding the interplay between soil moisture dynamics, salt crystallization, and material degradation is essential for safeguarding the cultural and structural value of historic buildings in the face of ongoing environmental challenges and climate variability. Full article

Sustainable architectural heritage conservation focuses on preserving historical buildings while promoting environmental sustainability. It involves using eco-friendly materials and methods to ensure that the cultural value of these structures is maintained while minimizing their ecological impact. In this paper, the use of the hydroxyapatite (HAp) in various combinations on masonry samples is presented, with the aim of identifying the ideal solution to be applied to an entire historical building in Banloc monument. The new solution has various advantages: compatibility with historical lime mortars (chemical and physical), increased durability under aggressive environmental conditions, non-invasive and reversible, aligning with conservation ethics, bioinspired material that avoids harmful synthetic additives, preservation of esthetics—minimal visual change to treated surfaces, and nanostructural (determined via SEM and AFM) reinforcement to improve cohesion without altering the porosity. An innovative approach involving hydroxiapatite addition to commercial mortars is developed and presented within this paper. Physico-chemical, mechanical studies, and architectural and economic trends will be addressed in this paper. Some specific tests (reduced water absorption, increased adhesion, high mechanical strength, unchanged chromatic aspect, high contact angle, not dangerous freeze–thaw test, reduced carbonation test), will be presented to evidence the capability of hydroxyapatite to be incorporated into green renovation efforts, strengthen the consolidation layer, and focus on its potential uses as an eco-material in building construction and renovation. The methodology employed in evaluating the comparative performance of hydroxyapatite (HAp)-modified mortar versus standard Baumit MPI25 mortar includes a standard error (SE) analysis computed column-wise across performance indicators. To further substantiate the claim of “optimal performance” at 20% HAp addition, independent samples t-tests were performed. The results of the independent samples t-tests were applied to three performance and cost indicators: Application Cost, Annualized Cost, and Efficiency-Cost-Performance (ECP) Index. This validates the claim that HAp-modified mortar offers superior overall performance when considering efficiency, cost, and durability combined. Full article

The conservation and intervention of heritage structures require a flexible, interdisciplinary environment capable of managing data throughout the building’s life cycle. Historic building information modeling (HBIM) has emerged as an effective tool for supporting these processes. Originally conceived for parametric construction modeling, BIM can also integrate historical transformations, aiding in maintenance and preservation. Historic buildings often feature complex geometries and visible material traces of time, requiring detailed analysis. This research proposes a methodology for documenting and assessing the envelope of historic buildings by locating, classifying, and recording transformations, deterioration, and structural deformations. The approach is based on semantic segmentation and classification using data from terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), applied to the Palace of Miguel de Mañara—an iconic 17th-century building in Seville. Archival images were integrated into the HBIM model to identify previous restoration interventions and assess current deterioration. The methodology included geometric characterization, material mapping, semantic segmentation, diagnostic input, and temporal analysis. The results validated a process for detecting pathological cracks in masonry facades, providing a collaborative HBIM framework enriched with expert-validated data to support repair decisions and guide conservation efforts. Full article

Building facade insulation technologies have evolved from primitive thermal barriers to high-performance, multifunctional systems that enhance energy efficiency and indoor comfort. Historical insulation methods, such as thick masonry walls and timber-based construction, have gradually been replaced by advanced materials and innovative facade designs. Studies indicate that a significant proportion of a building’s heat loss occurs through its external walls and windows, highlighting the need for effective insulation strategies. The development of double-skin facades (D-SFSs), adaptive facades (AFs), and green facades has enabled substantial reductions in heating and cooling energy demands. Materials such as vacuum insulation panels (VIPs), aerogels, and phase change materials (PCMs) have demonstrated superior thermal resistance, contributing to improved thermal regulation and reduced carbon emissions. Green facades offer additional benefits by lowering surface temperatures and mitigating urban heat island effects, while D-SF configurations can reduce cooling loads by over 20% in warm climates. Despite these advancements, challenges remain regarding the initial investment costs, durability, and material sustainability. The future of facade insulation technologies is expected to focus on bio-based and recyclable insulation materials, enhanced thermal performance, and climate-responsive facade designs. This study provides a comprehensive review of historical and modern facade insulation technologies, examining their impact on energy efficiency, sustainability, and future trends in architectural design. Full article

Historic monument buildings represent, in a three-dimensional form, the expression of civilization, culture, and progress across various historical periods. Restauration works on such structure must achieve a performance level that preserves the value expression of parameters associated with criteria derived from both the historical substance and the requirements for strength and stability. National and international regulations (such as UNESCO conventions) play an essential role in heritage consolidation. These frameworks set standards for conservation practices and promote the importance of protecting historic heritage, which is an expression of cultural identity and community history. The research findings presented in the paper refer to a case study, Costache Conachi Manor, a building classified as a historic monument, located in Galați County, Romania. The investigations concern the processes and methods used to identify the current condition of the building, which includes the structural aspect and the materials used, in order to ensure compatible restoration works while respecting and enhancing originality. Overall, these advanced research techniques not only help to accurately characterize the materials used in the historic Costache Conachi Manor masonry structure but also play a vital role in developing knowledge of restoration and conservation practices. Full article

On 6 February 2023, two major earthquakes struck southeastern Türkiye along the East Anatolian Fault, causing widespread structural damage, including the partial collapse of the historic Habibi Neccar Mosque in Antakya. This study presents a simulation-based approach to rapidly assess the seismic vulnerability of this partially damaged historic masonry structure. Due to the complexity and urgent condition of such heritage buildings, a simplified finite element (FE) modeling methodology is employed to evaluate structural behavior and support immediate stabilization decisions. Response spectrum analysis is applied to simulate and interpret stress distribution and deformation patterns in both undamaged and damaged states. The simulation results highlight significant tensile stress concentrations exceeding 0.2 MPa at dome–arch joints and vaults—primary indicators of localized failures. Additionally, the analysis reveals increased out-of-plane deformations and the influence of soil amplification in the remaining walls, both of which further compromise the structural integrity of the building. The findings demonstrate that simplified FE simulations can serve as practical and efficient tools for early seismic assessment of historic structures, contributing to rapid decision making, risk mitigation, and cultural heritage preservation in earthquake-prone areas. Full article

The use of binders in construction dates back to antiquity, with lime-based materials historically playing a significant role. However, the 20th century brought the widespread replacement of lime with Portland cement (PC), for its superior mechanical strength, durability, and faster setting time. Despite these advantages, the restoration of historic masonry structures has revealed the incompatibility of PC with traditional materials, leading to damage due to increased brittleness, stiffness, and reduced permeability. Consequently, lime mortars remain the preferred choice for heritage conservation. To enhance their durability while maintaining compatibility with historic materials, the incorporation of carbon-based nanoparticles has gained attention. This study investigated the impact of the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) additive on two types of lime-based mortars, calcium lime (CL) and hydraulic lime (HL), evaluating structural and mechanical properties, heat transport characteristics, and hygric properties after modification by CNTs with dosages of 0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.5% binder weight. Incorporation of CNTs into CL mortar resulted in an increase in mechanical strength and slight reduction in heat transport and water absorption due to changes in porosity. The addition of CNTs into HL mortars reduced porosity, pore size distribution, and other depending characteristics. The utilisation of CNTs as an additive in the investigated lime-based composites has been identified as a potentially effective approach for the reinforcement and functionalisation of these composite materials, as they exhibited enhanced mechanical resistance while preserving their other engineering properties, making them well suited for use as compatible mortars in building heritage repairs. Full article

The challenge of thermally upgrading traditional stone masonry buildings is addressed through the analysis of a representative example typical of regional rural architecture in central Poland, constructed using soft silica limestone and clay mortar. These buildings, which form an important part of the local cultural heritage, are increasingly becoming the subject of interdisciplinary research and conservation initiatives. This study presents a detailed characterization of the materials and architectural features specific to this building typology. Thermal transmittance calculations were performed and analyzed, with the use of THERM 7.6.1.0 software enabling precise modeling of the wall’s heterogeneous structure. The physical and thermal properties of natural materials—particularly soft silica limestone and clay—were taken into account. The analysis included evaluation of the heat transfer coefficient, temperature distribution, and heat flux density for a reference wall model, as well as for variants with both internal and external insulation layers. The study explores thermal comfort and energy performance within the broader context of preserving and reusing historic rural buildings. Furthermore, the findings are discussed in relation to current European energy efficiency regulations and heritage protection frameworks. The scientific value of this work lies in its context-specific, material-sensitive methodology and in providing practical insight into balancing energy retrofitting with architectural conservation. Full article

This study investigates structural integrity and proposes retrofitting solutions for the historical two-storey school building in Thrapsano, Crete, severely impacted by the September 2021 earthquake. An extensive methodology was adopted, incorporating field surveys, material characterization, finite element modeling, and experimental analysis. The assessment is focused on identifying structural damage, such as cracking and delamination in masonry walls, and evaluating the dynamic and static performance of the load-bearing system under seismic loads. Key interventions include grouting for masonry reinforcement, replacement of mortar with compatible materials, stitching of cracks, and the addition of reinforced concrete and metallic tie elements to enhance diaphragm action. Advanced numerical simulations, validated through experimental data, were employed to model the pre- and post-retrofit behavior of the structure. The proposed retrofitting measures align with Eurocodes 6 and 8, and the Greek code for masonry structures (KADET), aiming to restore the structural stability and improve seismic resilience while respecting the building’s historical significance. The results from the finite element analysis confirm the effectiveness of the interventions in reducing tensile stresses and improving load redistribution, ensuring compliance with modern safety standards. This case study offers a framework for the seismic retrofitting of heritage structures in a similar context. Full article

Traditional stone masonry walls are structural elements in most historic buildings. To preserve them and improve their ability to withstand extreme events, such as earthquakes, it is necessary to implement effective reinforcement solutions. This paper presents the modeling of traditional Portuguese rubble stone masonry walls, reinforced with external steel mesh, sprayed micro-concrete layers and transverse confinement by steel connectors, which were developed and tested experimentally in uniaxial compression. The modeling is carried out using micro-modeling through a 2D particle model (PM). The process of calibrating the properties of both micro-concrete and concrete is presented, the methodology for generating the numerical models is described and the numerical response is compared with the experimental results. The numerical results show that the PM can adequately reproduce the experimentally observed behavior of this type of reinforcement solution. Full article

This paper presents a case study of an unreinforced masonry building in central Zagreb, which sustained moderate damage during the 2020 earthquakes. Situated within the Lenuci Horseshoe—a planned urban and landscaped space integral to Zagreb’s historic Lower Town—the building is part of a significant urban achievement, reflecting the city’s development from the late 19th to the early 20th century. The study explores the architectural and historical context of the building, its design features, and its role within Zagreb’s broader urban and cultural heritage, highlighting its value as a case study in balancing preservation and functional reuse. A multidisciplinary approach, including architectural documentation, archival research, laser scanning, damage analysis, and nonlinear modeling using 3Muri software, was employed to comprehensively assess its seismic behavior. Furthermore, the study examines retrofitting strategies that harmonize structural safety with cultural heritage preservation within the Croatian context. Full article

This paper summarizes simple and practically attractive new methodologies based on validated and optimized strategies for preserving historical heritage towards natural or anthropic risks in order to assist public administrations and stakeholders involved at various levels in the protection of cultural heritage. This represents the outcome of the PRIN 2017 project DETECT-AGING—degradation effects on structural safety of cultural heritage constructions through simulations and health monitoring. Results were built on recent advances in structural performance modelling of historical masonry structures, interpretation of effects of degradation, advanced numerical simulations, and structural health monitoring, with the final aim to go beyond the state of the art in regard to assessing and establishing: (i) degradation effects from the level of materials to the scale of components; (ii) methodologies able to transfer information on mechanical behaviour from a micro-scale to a macro-scale; (iii) the use of ambient vibration measurements to address epistemic modelling uncertainties in historical masonry buildings; (iv) structural health monitoring (SHM) to detect the occurrence of damage and locate/quantify damage; (v) the capability of equivalent frame models (EFMs) to support the SHM of masonry structures in place of more refined 3D finite element models (FEMs); (vi) variations in the structural response that can be monitored by sensor networks as a function of simulated degradation. Full article