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15 pages, 807 KiB  
Article
Presence and Dermal Exposure to Benzene and Acetaldehyde in Hand Sanitizers Available in Taiwan
by Chieh-An Cheng and Shih-Wei Tsai
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 537; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070537 - 26 Jun 2025
Viewed by 384
Abstract
The widespread use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS) during and after the COVID-19 pandemic has raised concerns about potential exposure to harmful volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as benzene, acetaldehyde, and other impurities, which may pose health risks. This study investigated the concentrations [...] Read more.
The widespread use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS) during and after the COVID-19 pandemic has raised concerns about potential exposure to harmful volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as benzene, acetaldehyde, and other impurities, which may pose health risks. This study investigated the concentrations of ethanol, isopropanol, and 12 impurities, including benzene, acetaldehyde, and methanol, in 85 commercially available ABHS products in Taiwan using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results revealed that 12 samples contained alcohol concentrations below the recommended 60% (v/v) threshold. Benzene and acetaldehyde were identified as the primary impurities, with mean concentrations of 0.84 μg/g and 22.39 μg/g, respectively, exceeding the US FDA interim limits. For frequent ABHS users, the average dermal exposure doses (DEDs) to benzene ranged from 3.17 × 10−2 to 15.5 μg/kg-bw/day, with children aged 2–11 years showing the highest non-carcinogenic risk (Hazard Quotient > 1) and cancer risk (6.37 × 10−5 to 9.33 × 10−4). The findings emphasize the need for stringent quality control of ABHS products and caution in their selection and use. This study provides critical insights into the health risks associated with ABHS in Taiwan, underscoring the importance of regulatory oversight to ensure consumer safety. Full article
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33 pages, 3486 KiB  
Review
Dual Nature of Bacteriophages: Friends or Foes in Minimally Processed Food Products—A Comprehensive Review
by Michał Wójcicki, Barbara Sokołowska, Andrzej Górski and Ewa Jończyk-Matysiak
Viruses 2025, 17(6), 778; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17060778 - 29 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 709
Abstract
The increasing consumer demand for minimally processed foods (MPFs) has highlighted the need for innovative preservation methods that ensure both safety and quality. Among promising biocontrol tools, bacteriophages—viruses that selectively destroy bacteria—have gained significant attention. This review explores the dual role of bacteriophages [...] Read more.
The increasing consumer demand for minimally processed foods (MPFs) has highlighted the need for innovative preservation methods that ensure both safety and quality. Among promising biocontrol tools, bacteriophages—viruses that selectively destroy bacteria—have gained significant attention. This review explores the dual role of bacteriophages in the food industry. On one hand, they offer a natural, highly specific, and environmentally friendly means of controlling both pathogenic and spoilage bacteria in MPFs, contributing to improved food safety, extended shelf life, and reduced reliance on antibiotics and chemical preservatives. Their use spans primary production, bio-sanitization, and biopreservation. On the other hand, phages pose significant risks in fermentation-based industries such as dairy, where they can disrupt starter cultures and impair production. This review also examines the regulatory, technological, and safety challenges involved in phage application, including concerns about antibiotic resistance gene transfer, the presence of endotoxins, and scale-up limitations. Ultimately, this paper argues that with proper strain selection and regulation, bacteriophages can become valuable allies in sustainable food systems, despite their potential drawbacks. The application of strictly virulent bacteriophages as part of “green biotechnology” could enhance food quality and improve consumer health safety. By implementing the “farm to fork” strategy, bacteriophages may contribute to the production of health-promoting and sustainable food. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dual Nature of Bacteriophages: Friends or Enemies in Food Industry?)
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22 pages, 6932 KiB  
Article
Antiviral Activity of Rhamnolipids Nano-Micelles Against Rhinoviruses—In Silico Docking, Molecular Dynamic Analysis and In-Vitro Studies
by Lila Touabi, Nasser S. M. Ismail, Marwa R. Bakkar, Gary R. McLean and Yasmin Abo-zeid
Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2025, 47(5), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb47050333 - 6 May 2025
Viewed by 1506
Abstract
Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) previously focused mainly on multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, with less attention on viruses. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of controlling viral infections. Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) are among the viruses responsible for HAIs. HRVs are non-enveloped viruses that infect the upper [...] Read more.
Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) previously focused mainly on multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, with less attention on viruses. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of controlling viral infections. Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) are among the viruses responsible for HAIs. HRVs are non-enveloped viruses that infect the upper airways after airborne or direct transmission. Due to their lack of a membrane envelope, HRVs exhibit moderate resistance to commonly applied alcoholic disinfectants. Therefore, there is a significant need to develop alternative disinfection and hand sanitation strategies to control HRV infections in healthcare settings without posing a risk to human health. The antimicrobial activity and safety of rhamnolipids and rhamnolipids nano-micelles (RMN) against MDR-bacteria and several viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, were confirmed recently. Also, we previously demonstrated the superior antimicrobial activity of RMN over rhamnolipids. In the current study, molecular docking demonstrated the weak interactions of rhamnolipids with HRV-1A (minor group) compared to HRV-14 (major group), suggesting a superior antiviral activity of rhamnolipids towards major group rhinoviruses. To biologically validate these data, RMN was prepared and characterized, and then antiviral activity against HRV-16 (major group) and HRV-1B (minor group) infection of HeLa cells was assessed. RMN showed a complete inhibition of HRV-16 infection with recovery of 100% of HeLa cell viability. In contrast, only partial inhibition of HRV-1B infection with approximately 50% protection against infection was observed. Therefore, RMN might be recommended as a disinfectant and/or a hand sanitizer component to control the spread of RVs in hospital care settings or elsewhere to reduce the incidence of respiratory infections. Full article
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20 pages, 2697 KiB  
Article
The Microbiome of an Outpatient Sports Medicine Clinic During a Global Pandemic: Effects of Implementation of a Microbiome-Specific Cleaning Program
by Greer Russell, Rabia Alegoz, Kelley Hester, Kayla L. Sierzega, Martin J. Szul, Nathaniel Hubert, Timothy Rylander, Sarah Jensen, Mae J. Ciancio, Kristina Martinez-Guryn and Christian C. Evans
Microorganisms 2025, 13(4), 737; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13040737 - 25 Mar 2025
Viewed by 554
Abstract
Outpatient healthcare facilities represent potential sources of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). The purpose of this study was to survey high-contact surfaces in an outpatient physical therapy clinic, characterize the microbiome of those surfaces, and investigate the effects of a microbiome-specific cleaning and hygiene plan. [...] Read more.
Outpatient healthcare facilities represent potential sources of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). The purpose of this study was to survey high-contact surfaces in an outpatient physical therapy clinic, characterize the microbiome of those surfaces, and investigate the effects of a microbiome-specific cleaning and hygiene plan. Hand sanitizer containing a fluorescent probe used by patients and staff identified surface contact. High-contact surfaces were analyzed for bacterial DNA and SARS-CoV-2. A microbiome-specific cleaning and hygiene plan was developed based on initial analysis. After the implementation of the revised cleaning regimen, microbial community diversity and predicted metagenome content (PICRUSt) were employed for differential analysis. Patients had greater surface contact than staff. Ralstonia pickettii was the dominant species pre-cleaning, comprising 49.76% of the total, and observed on 79.5% of surfaces. The cleaning and hygiene plan significantly increased Shannon diversity, and R. pickettii decreased to 4.05% of total bacteria. SARS-CoV-2 was not observed on any surfaces. This study found ecological dominance by a single species in this outpatient clinic, suggesting a potential source of HAIs. However, a microbiome-specific cleaning strategy was successful in diversifying the microbiome and reducing ecological dominance. Additional research is needed to confirm these findings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microbiome in Ecosystems)
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46 pages, 7489 KiB  
Review
Environmental Impact of Textile Materials: Challenges in Fiber–Dye Chemistry and Implication of Microbial Biodegradation
by Arvind Negi
Polymers 2025, 17(7), 871; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070871 - 24 Mar 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3309
Abstract
Synthetic and natural fibers are widely used in the textile industry. Natural fibers include cellulose-based materials like cotton, and regenerated fibers like viscose as well as protein-based fibers such as silk and wool. Synthetic fibers, on the other hand, include PET and polyamides [...] Read more.
Synthetic and natural fibers are widely used in the textile industry. Natural fibers include cellulose-based materials like cotton, and regenerated fibers like viscose as well as protein-based fibers such as silk and wool. Synthetic fibers, on the other hand, include PET and polyamides (like nylon). Due to significant differences in their chemistry, distinct dyeing processes are required, each generating specific waste. For example, cellulose fibers exhibit chemical inertness toward dyes, necessitating chemical auxiliaries that contribute to wastewater contamination, whereas synthetic fibers are a major source of non-biodegradable microplastic emissions. Addressing the environmental impact of fiber processing requires a deep molecular-level understanding to enable informed decision-making. This manuscript emphasizes potential solutions, particularly through the biodegradation of textile materials and related chemical waste, aligning with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6, which promotes clean water and sanitation. For instance, cost-effective methods using enzymes or microbes can aid in processing the fibers and their associated dyeing solutions while also addressing textile wastewater, which contains high concentrations of unreacted dyes, salts, and other highly water-soluble pollutants. This paper covers different aspects of fiber chemistry, dyeing, degradation mechanisms, and the chemical waste produced by the textile industry, while highlighting microbial-based strategies for waste mitigation. The integration of microbes not only offers a solution for managing large volumes of textile waste but also paves the way for sustainable technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reactive and Functional Biopolymers)
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16 pages, 2436 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Status of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Services at Primary Schools in uMfolozi Local Municipality, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa
by Lindokuhle C. Radebe, Matlou I. Mokgobu, Gomotsegang F. Molelekwa and Matodzi M. Mokoena
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22(3), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22030360 - 28 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1160
Abstract
This study assessed the status of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services at (49) selected primary schools in uMfolozi Local Municipality, which is situated in the province of Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa. Data were collected using an observational checklist tool and by [...] Read more.
This study assessed the status of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services at (49) selected primary schools in uMfolozi Local Municipality, which is situated in the province of Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa. Data were collected using an observational checklist tool and by conducting a walk-through survey to inspect the conditions of sanitary facilities, observe the hand-washing practices of the school learners, and analyse the accessibility to safe drinking water in school premises. The data were analysed with the Statistical Package for Social Science Version 29. This study revealed that there is easy access to safe drinking water in all but one school. The dependability of the water supply seemed to be one of the most urgent problems in every school, even though all of them have some kind of drinking water infrastructure on their grounds. Municipal water (n = 25, 36%) and rainwater (n = 25, 36%) were the most common type of water used in schools compared to borehole (n = 15, 22%) and tanker truck water (n = 4, 6%). Schools must have a reserved water supply because of the inconsistent supply of municipal water, and because rainwater is a seasonal harvest while borehole water may be affected by factors like load-shedding. The UNICEF-described ratio of one tap or disperser per fifty learners suggests that the water taps in the schoolyard were insufficient in some schools (n = 25, 36%). Rainwater is collected through a gutter system in the school building roofs and stored in 5000–10,000 Jojo tanks. Borehole water is pumped into Jojo tanks at an elevated position where it is stored, and learners receive the water through taps connected to the borehole tanks. During an emergency when there is no water supply from other sources, tanker trucks are hired to fill tanks that are also used to store rainwater. The borehole and rainwater quality appeared to be clear, but water treatment had not been performed, and the microbial quality was unknown. This shows that the Sustainable Development Goal (SGD) 6, clean water and sanitation, is still far from being met. According to national norms and standards for domestic water and sanitation services, people who do not use water treatment or purification techniques fall in the ‘no service’ category and contribute to the water backlog. Pit latrines (n = 46, 94%) and flush toilet (n = 3, 6%) were found to be the only convenient toilet systems used. The number of toilets is not sufficient according to the guidelines. There are (n = 46, 94%) of the schools in the study area using pit latrine due to insufficient or no water supply. In 89.8% of primary schools, sanitation facilities are in working condition in terms of repair and hygiene, while 10.2% are not usable in terms of hygiene, and these are mostly boy’s toilets. All schools (n = 46, 94%) that have flush toilets is because they received sponsorship from non-government stakeholders that funded them in achieving piped water systems that permit the functionality of flush toilets. For the purposes of this study, hygiene was evaluate based on the items found in toilets and handwashing practices. The hygiene aspects of toilets included tissues, cleanness, and toilet seat. For handwashing practices we looked the number of washing basins, the colour of water, and having soaps to use. In the schools that did provide handwashing facilities, some of the toilets were broken, there was no water, or there was no drainage system in place to allow them to function. However, according to the school act, the handwash basins should be inside the facilities. A total of (n = 7, 14%) of handwash basins were inside the toilets. Only (n = 2, 4%) of schools had handwashing facilities which were Jojo tanks with taps near toilets, which were outside of the toilet, with no soap provided. Additionally, (n = 40, 82%) of learners used drinking points for handwashing, which can possibly transmit microbes among them. The findings revealed that, in general, (n = 32, 64%) of school toilets were clean, while, in general, the girls’ toilets were cleaner than the boys’ toilets. In all the schools, the cleaning services were from the people who were involved in school nutrition. In conclusion, there were water sources available for access to water inside schools; however, the situation can be improved by increasing the number of water source points. Pit latrines were the main used toilets, which were in a majority of the schools, and did not have the necessary terms for hygiene such as handwashing basin, tissues, and others. The lack of the main aspect, i.e., access to water and sanitation items, results in an impact on hygiene to learners as they will fail to practice proper hygiene. However, improvement can still be made by keeping the boys’ toilets clean while increasing the number of handwashing basins inside the toilets, so that they do not use taps outside the toilets. Schools should work towards meeting the required number of handwashing basins to increase access to handwashing facilities. Full article
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12 pages, 494 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Differential Virucidal Efficacy of Alcohol-Based Disinfectants Against Human Norovirus and Its Surrogates
by Eri Hiraishi, Keita Ozaki, Moe Yamakami, Tempei Akasaka and Hirokazu Kimura
Microorganisms 2025, 13(2), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13020368 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1274
Abstract
Human norovirus (HuNoV) is a major causative agent of foodborne illness and causes acute viral gastroenteritis. This study aimed to compare the virucidal efficacies of alcohol-based disinfectants against HuNoV and its surrogates for murine norovirus and feline calicivirus using a cell culture infectivity [...] Read more.
Human norovirus (HuNoV) is a major causative agent of foodborne illness and causes acute viral gastroenteritis. This study aimed to compare the virucidal efficacies of alcohol-based disinfectants against HuNoV and its surrogates for murine norovirus and feline calicivirus using a cell culture infectivity assay. Additionally, the study evaluated the validity of estimating virucidal efficacy on HuNoV from the results of virucidal efficacy on the surrogate virus. All disinfectants decreased the titer of each virus by >3 log10 and >4 log10 for an exposure duration of 30 s against murine norovirus and feline calicivirus, respectively. However, acidic alcohol-based disinfectants completely inactivated the HuNoV GII.17 strain for 30 or 60 s, whereas an alkaline alcohol-based disinfectant did not inactivate HuNoV GII.17 for 60 s. This finding indicates that the pH of alcohol disinfectants affects their virucidal effects against HuNoV, and acidity has a higher virucidal efficacy against HuNoV than alkalinity. Disinfectants showing virucidal efficacy against surrogates were not effective against HuNoV. Few studies have used cell culture infectivity assays to test the inactivating effects of hand sanitizers on HuNoV and its surrogates. Our study provides useful information for the development of disinfectants that are effective against HuNoV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Disinfection and Sterilization of Microorganisms (2nd Edition))
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13 pages, 1279 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Health Literacy on Consumer Knowledge of Mask and Hand Sanitizer Use in Post-Pandemic Korea
by Youngill Ko and Seung-Mi Lee
Healthcare 2025, 13(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13020125 - 10 Jan 2025
Viewed by 857
Abstract
Background/Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic increased people’s reliance on masks and hand sanitizers, highlighting the critical role of health literacy (HL) in effectively using these preventive measures. This study aimed to assess how HL influences consumers’ comprehension of product labels for masks and hand [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic increased people’s reliance on masks and hand sanitizers, highlighting the critical role of health literacy (HL) in effectively using these preventive measures. This study aimed to assess how HL influences consumers’ comprehension of product labels for masks and hand sanitizers in post-pandemic Korea. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted in September 2023 among 500 Korean adults aged 20–69. The participants completed a questionnaire measuring HL and their knowledge of mask and hand sanitizer labels using the Korean Health Literacy Assessment Tool. The respondents were classified into high- and low-literacy groups, and statistical analyses (chi-squared tests, t-tests, and logistic regression analyses) were employed to compare label comprehension between the groups. Results: High HL was observed in 31.6% of participants, demonstrating significantly better label-reading habits, including greater recognition of quasi-drug designations, usage instructions, and safety precautions (p < 0.001). The logistic regression analysis revealed that high-HL participants were more likely to correctly identify mask-related information (OR 2.56, 95% CI: 1.69–3.89) and demonstrate hand sanitizer-related knowledge (OR 5.39, 95% CI: 3.31–8.77) than their counterparts. Demographic factors such as age, gender, or education showed no significant associations with label comprehension. Conclusions: Higher HL is strongly associated with better comprehension of mask and hand sanitizer labels, underscoring its importance in public health communication. Enhancing HL is essential in promoting the safe use of preventive products during health emergencies. Public health initiatives should prioritize improving health literacy to ensure more effective communication and safer practices during future health crises. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection COVID-19: Impact on Public Health and Healthcare)
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16 pages, 269 KiB  
Article
Education for Improving Awareness and Practices Regarding Hand Hygiene Among Romanian School Children
by Anda-Valentina Trandafir and Lucia Maria Lotrean
Sustainability 2025, 17(1), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010304 - 3 Jan 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2938
Abstract
Sustainable Development Goal 6 aims to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. This study aimed to describe the implementation, effect and process evaluation of an educational session focused on promoting hand hygiene among school children within a [...] Read more.
Sustainable Development Goal 6 aims to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. This study aimed to describe the implementation, effect and process evaluation of an educational session focused on promoting hand hygiene among school children within a school-based health education program. Seven schools from Romania participated in a longitudinal study. Children were categorized in two groups: Intervention (participating in a session in which they learnt about the importance of hand hygiene and the technique of handwashing, as part of a comprehensive educational program) and Control (standard education). Data were gathered through confidential questionnaires at baseline (October–November 2019, 880 participants) and follow-up (December 2020–February 2021, 484 participants); 350 children participated in both assessments. Many children consistently practiced handwashing in several situations at both evaluations. At follow-up, both groups had improved several hand hygiene practices; students from the Intervention group showed a higher handwashing frequency after using the toilet and before meals in comparison with the Control group. The majority of students from the intervention group agreed the program helped improving their handwashing behavior; girls and children with parents of lower educational levels tended to have a more favorable opinion. Consistent efforts and reinforcement are necessary for the maintenance of correct hand-washing practices. Full article
23 pages, 4094 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Water Service Levels and User Satisfaction for Domestic Water Use in Emina-Boadi-Kumasi to Achieve the Sustainable Development of Urban Water Supply Systems in Ghana
by Emmanuel Padmore Mantey, Rameshwar S. Kanwar and Eugene Appiah-Effah
Water 2024, 16(22), 3193; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223193 - 7 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2668
Abstract
Access to reliable water supply is critical for sustainable development and public health, yet many peri-urban and rural communities in the developing world face challenges such as poor maintenance, faulty infrastructure, and inadequate governance of water services, hindering the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals [...] Read more.
Access to reliable water supply is critical for sustainable development and public health, yet many peri-urban and rural communities in the developing world face challenges such as poor maintenance, faulty infrastructure, and inadequate governance of water services, hindering the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). In Emina-Boadi, a small town in Kumasi, Ghana, residents increasingly rely on boreholes due to substandard service from the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL). This shift highlights concerns about water reliability, quality, and affordability, impacting public health and hindering progress toward SDG 6. This case study assesses water service levels using key performance indicators (KPIs) such as quantity, quality, affordability, accessibility, and reliability, focusing on sources like boreholes, hand pumps, piped water, hand-dug wells, rainwater, and surface waters. The study aims to delineate the roles of different water providers, understand community dynamics, and evaluate contributions to rural development and SDG 6 through stakeholder interviews and questionnaires. By leveraging the WASHCost framework, which aims to improve planning methods and the provision of water and sanitation services by addressing the lack of cost information in rural and peri-urban areas, and the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) framework, which monitors progress toward global targets related to water, sanitation, and hygiene, the study categorizes indicators and draws connections among them. The findings reveal a significant preference for borehole services, with 87% usage and an 83% reliability rate compared to 13% for GWCL. Daily water consumption averages 60.75 L per person, with on-premises access improving water collection efficiency to 7 min. Dissatisfaction with GWCL services highlights the need for improved delivery aligned with community needs and SDG targets. Adopting sustainable management practices, enhancing infrastructure, and improving governance are crucial for ensuring safe and affordable water access for all residents of Emina-Boadi and similar communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)
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20 pages, 1585 KiB  
Article
Microbiological Analysis of Wild Lowbush Blueberries Harvested in Nova Scotia, Canada for the Fresh Produce Market
by Timothy Ells, Nancy Tregunno, Lihua Fan, Michele Elliot, Craig Doucette, Hugh Lyu and Alexa Jollimore
Microorganisms 2024, 12(11), 2251; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12112251 - 7 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1465
Abstract
Canada is a leading producer of wild lowbush blueberries, most of which are mechanically harvested, washed, individually quick frozen (IQF), and bulk packaged. Still, some berries are harvested by more gentle methods and sold as fresh-packed products. These berries do not undergo a [...] Read more.
Canada is a leading producer of wild lowbush blueberries, most of which are mechanically harvested, washed, individually quick frozen (IQF), and bulk packaged. Still, some berries are harvested by more gentle methods and sold as fresh-packed products. These berries do not undergo a wash step, nor are subjected to antimicrobial treatments. The purpose of this study was to conduct a microbiological survey of berries harvested in the province of Nova Scotia to assess their potential for harborage of bacterial foodborne pathogens. A combination of standardized plate count methods and 3M-Petrifilm protocols were used to enumerate total aerobic mesophilic bacteria (APC), yeasts and molds (YMC), coliforms, and generic E. coli, the latter being an indicator of fecal contamination. Overall, APC and YMC levels were 1.2 and 0.5 log greater, respectively, for berries collected early in the harvest season versus those acquired late season and varied significantly (p < 0.05) between farm (location) and harvest practices used. Berries harvested by our team using sanitized hand rakes (SH) had consistently lower APC and YMC levels than those harvested by farm crews. Yet, when gentle harvesting (GH) methods (hand-raking, walk-behind or modified mechanical harvesters) were employed on farms, lower numbers were generally observed compared to berries harvested by traditional tractor-mounted mechanized harvesters (MH). The presence of coliforms (and their levels) was also impacted by the harvest method, with detection rates of ~29%, 73%, and 92% in SH, GH, and MH samples, respectively. Mean counts were < 2.5 log10 CFU/g for both SH and GH berries, but significantly higher (p < 0.05) on MH berries (3.6 log10 CFU/g). Although ~56% of all berry samples collected (n = 350) contained coliforms, only 12 were positive for E. coli, 9 of which were MH samples. Only the latter had numbers > 2 log10 CFU/g, but none tested positive for Shiga toxin-producing serotype O157 (STEC O157) or Salmonella spp. when using internationally recognized selective enrichment and plating methods. ATP luminescence was used to assess the general hygiene of processing lines, whereby “hot spots” for microbial activity were identified, even after cleaning., Standard selective enrichment and plating methods were used for the detection of Listeria monocytogenes on 61 swab samples taken from berry totes or conveyor belts at different times during processing; 4 swabs tested positive for L. monocytogenes. However, the pathogen could not be detected by direct plating on selective agar without prior enrichment; this indicated its numbers were low. The results from this work demonstrated that alternative gentle harvest methods can reduce microbial numbers on wild blueberries. Although the frequency of fecal contamination in berry samples appeared to be low and targeted human pathogens were not detected; this represents a single study conducted over one harvest season. Therefore, it would be prudent for processors to seek effective antimicrobial technologies prior to packaging, while consumers should use caution and thoroughly wash produce before consumption. Where sporadic detection of L. monocytogenes was observed on environmental samples from the processing line, processors must ensure that effective sanitation programs are implemented to avoid potential food safety risks. Full article
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17 pages, 317 KiB  
Review
The Implications of Handwashing and Skin Hygiene on Infectious Disease Dynamics: The African Scenario
by Olalekan Chris Akinsulie, Victor Ayodele Aliyu, Ibrahim Idris, Samuel Ajulo, Oluwagbemisola Olukogbe, Chizaram Ukauwa and Jesuferanmi Mary Akinsulie
Hygiene 2024, 4(4), 483-499; https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene4040036 - 6 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5590
Abstract
Infectious diseases are largely preventable, yet they continue to pose a significant threat to public health, particularly among vulnerable populations in developing countries. Basic hygiene practices, especially hand and skin hygiene, have been shown to significantly reduce the risk of the cross-transmission of [...] Read more.
Infectious diseases are largely preventable, yet they continue to pose a significant threat to public health, particularly among vulnerable populations in developing countries. Basic hygiene practices, especially hand and skin hygiene, have been shown to significantly reduce the risk of the cross-transmission of infections, including those caused by multi-drug-resistant organisms. In light of the growing global concern about antimicrobial resistance, there is an urgent need to review and reinforce these practices. This study provides a general overview of the role that hand hygiene practices play in decreasing infectious diseases by conducting a comprehensive review. Multiple online databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science, were searched using relevant keywords such as “hygiene practices”, “infectious diseases”, “public health”, “Africa”, and “sanitation”. After filtering the search results for relevancy, selected studies were narratively synthesized to present the latest data on hand hygiene and its impact on infectious diseases. Strengthening hand and skin hygiene, along with environmental sanitation and preventive measures, can help reduce the spread of nosocomial infections. By emphasizing the importance of these fundamental hygiene practices, particularly in regions where the burden of infectious diseases is highest, the development of antibiotic-resistant diseases can be prevented, improving patient safety, and enhancing public health outcomes. Adopting comprehensive hygiene policies, including regular handwashing, is crucial for reducing the prevalence of infectious diseases and improving health outcomes in developing countries. Full article
21 pages, 3715 KiB  
Article
Alcohol-Based Hand Sanitizers Used for COVID-19 Prevention in the Informal Settlements of Cape Town, South Africa
by Sisanda Dalasile, Elie Itoba Tombo, Benett Siyabonga Madonsela, Philani Perfect Mpungose, Ndumiso Mshicileli and Makabongwe Menziwa
COVID 2024, 4(10), 1655-1675; https://doi.org/10.3390/covid4100115 - 14 Oct 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1911
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic and other infectious diseases continue to threaten public health, particularly in densely populated informal settlements. Effective hand hygiene, supported by alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS), plays a critical role in preventing disease transmission. This study assessed the quality, safety, and compliance [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic and other infectious diseases continue to threaten public health, particularly in densely populated informal settlements. Effective hand hygiene, supported by alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS), plays a critical role in preventing disease transmission. This study assessed the quality, safety, and compliance of ABHS used in informal settlements around Cape Town. A total of 78 samples were collected from spaza shops, with 72 analyzed using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. The results showed that 76% of ethanol-based sanitizers met compliance standards, while 24% did not. Isopropanol compliance (≥70%) was only observed in 36% of samples, with 64% failing to meet Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines. Overall, 74% of hand sanitizers complied with recommended alcohol concentrations by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and CDC, while 26% posed a health risk due to non-compliance. These findings emphasize the urgent need for stricter regulation and public education to ensure effective hand sanitizers are used, thereby reducing infection risks in vulnerable populations. The study aims to inform public health policies and improve regulatory standards. Full article
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14 pages, 231 KiB  
Article
Preventive Behaviors during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Delaware’s Underserved Communities: A Longitudinal Study (2021–2022)
by Sharron Xuanren Wang, Nicole Bell Rogers, Kylie Trask, Dorothy Dillard and Melissa A. Harrington
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(10), 890; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14100890 - 1 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1184
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic officially started in March 2020 and ended in May 2023. Preventive behaviors have been proven to be one of the most effective strategies for preventing COVID-19 transmission. Common preventive behaviors against COVID-19 include but are not limited to wearing a [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic officially started in March 2020 and ended in May 2023. Preventive behaviors have been proven to be one of the most effective strategies for preventing COVID-19 transmission. Common preventive behaviors against COVID-19 include but are not limited to wearing a face mask, washing and sanitizing one’s hands frequently, avoiding crowds, and avoiding traveling. Underserved communities and racial/ethnic minorities across the U.S. have been disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a three-wave longitudinal survey conducted from early 2021 to late 2022, the present study investigated changes in the adoption of COVID-19-preventive behaviors among residents living in Delaware’s most underserved communities. We also examined whether changes in COVID-19-preventive behaviors differed by race. Our results indicated that fewer people adopted preventive behaviors as the pandemic progressed, and this finding is applicable to both Black people and White people. However, Black people had a consistently greater likelihood of adopting preventive behaviors compared to White people from early 2021 to late 2022. Scientific and policy implications are discussed. Full article
15 pages, 10006 KiB  
Article
Study on the Fate of the Carbopol® Polymer in the Use of Hand Sanitizer Gels: An Experimental Model to Monitor Its Physical State from Product Manufacturing up to the Final Hand Rinse
by Marcello Marchetti, Alessandro Perini, Michela Zanella, Federico Benetti and Daniela Donelli
Microplastics 2024, 3(3), 390-404; https://doi.org/10.3390/microplastics3030024 - 10 Jul 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2959
Abstract
Carbopol® is a typical jelly agent belonging to the family of cross-linked polyacrylic acid copolymers. It is largely used in antibacterial gels due to its self-wetting properties. In its pristine physical form, Carbopol® falls under the definition of microplastics, though significant [...] Read more.
Carbopol® is a typical jelly agent belonging to the family of cross-linked polyacrylic acid copolymers. It is largely used in antibacterial gels due to its self-wetting properties. In its pristine physical form, Carbopol® falls under the definition of microplastics, though significant changes could occur once added to hydroalcoholic solvents of the liquid formulations. To date, no life-cycle data regarding the physical state are available for this substance or for other similar polymers of the same chemical class. The aim of the present study was the investigation of the fate of Carbopol®-derived microplastics used in the formulation of typical hand sanitizer gels available in the Italian market, such as Amuchina® X-Germ, along the product life cycle. An experimental model was designed to detect the presence of Carbopol® microparticles from product manufacturing to the final use. FTIR and µ-FTIR were used to detect and characterize solid particles after the optimization of the sample preparation of different experimental matrices. While Carbopol® as such can be classified as a microplastic, in the commercial product, Carbopol® particles were not detected. Ten volunteers used the product according to the instructions reported on the label, and finally they rinsed their hands. Carbopol®-based particles were not detected in the water rinse, indicating that, after usage, the original form of the Carbopol microparticles was not retrieved. The study proposes, for the first time, a simple and comprehensive experimental approach to identify and characterize microplastics in finished products and along the life cycle by simulating their real-life usage. This approach could be also useful to evaluate the release of chemical components into the environment through the use of dermal products. Full article
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