Search Results (358)

Fumonisins, primarily produced by Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus section nigri, are common contaminants in maize, cereal grains, and other processed and derived products, representing a significant risk to food safety and public health. This study presents the development and optimisation of a high-performance liquid chromatography method with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) for the quantification of fumonisin B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) in various food matrices. In contrast with conventional protocols employing potassium phosphate buffers as the mobile phase, the proposed method utilises formic acid, offering enhanced compatibility with liquid chromatography systems. An automated online precolumn derivatisation with o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA) was optimised through experimental design and response surface methodology, enabling baseline separation of FB1 and FB2 derivatives in less than 20 min. The method demonstrated high sensitivity, with limits of detection of 0.006 µg mL⁻¹ for FB1 and 0.012 µg mL⁻¹ for FB2, and excellent repeatability (intraday RSD values of 0.85% and 0.83%, respectively). Several solid-phase extraction (SPE) strategies were evaluated to enhance sample clean-up using a variety of food samples, including dried figs, raisins, dates, corn, cornmeal, wheat flour, and rice. FumoniStar Inmunoaffinity columns were the only clean-up method that provided optimal recoveries (70–120%) across all tested food matrices. However, the MultiSep™ 211 column yielded good recoveries for both fumonisins in dried figs and raisins. Additionally, the C18 cartridge achieved acceptable recoveries for both fumonisins in dried figs and wheat flour. Full article

The diet of dairy calves can be contaminated with mycotoxins, posing a potential risk to animal health. This case study report aimed to make the first assessment of the presence of multiple mycotoxins in concentrates fed to dairy calves in Brazil. A total of 19 concentrate samples intended for dairy calves were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, and T-2 toxin were not detected in any samples, whereas fumonisins B₁ (FB₁) and B₂ (FB₂) were present in 100% of the samples, with mean concentrations of 2750.1 μg/kg and 834.9 μg/kg, respectively. Zearalenone (ZEN) was detected in 36.8% of samples, with a mean concentration of 929.9 μg/kg. Significant correlations were observed between FB₁ and FB₂ (ρ = 0.978; p < 0.001) and between FB₂ and ZEN (ρ = 0.735; p = 0.05). While the physical form of the concentrate did not influence (p > 0.05) mycotoxin concentrations, a trend was observed for FB₁ (ρ = −0.417; p = 0.07) and FB2 (ρ = −0.395; p = 0.09). These findings highlight the frequent occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins, likely due to pre-harvest contamination, emphasizing the potential risk of additive or synergistic effects in dairy calves. Full article

Maize is a key crop in Ecuador for both human and animal consumption. Its vulnerability to fungal contamination and mycotoxins poses risks to food safety. The aim of this study was to analyze the occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in maize grown in different regions of Ecuador (29 localities) and postharvest factors influencing contamination. Fungal identification was performed through culturing and morphological analysis. Analysis of multi-toxins was carried out using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Statistical analyses included PCA and linear regression models. Fungal contamination was found in 93.3% of samples; mycotoxins were present in 90%. Fusarium and Aspergillus were dominant. Fumonisins (66.6%), zearalenone (30%), aflatoxins (16.7%), and trichothecenes B (13.3%) were the most prevalent. Co-occurrence of up to three mycotoxins per sample was observed, more frequent on the coast. Grain moisture and temperature were strongly correlated with contamination levels. The study reveals widespread contamination of Ecuadorian maize, with environmental and postharvest factors playing key roles. This poses a food safety concern, highlighting the need for improved storage and monitoring systems. Full article

Mycotoxins represent a group of highly toxic secondary metabolites produced by diverse fungal pathogens. Mycotoxin contaminations frequently occur in foods and feed and pose significant risks to human and animal health due to their carcinogenic, mutagenic, and immunosuppressive properties. Notably, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins (mainly including fumonisins B1, B2, and FB3), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and T-2/HT-2 toxins are the major mycotoxin contaminants in foods and feed. Undoubtedly, exposure to these mycotoxins can disrupt gut health, particularly damaging the intestinal epithelium in humans and animals. In this review, we summarized the detrimental effects caused by these mycotoxins on the intestinal health of humans and animals. The fundamental molecular mechanisms, which cover the induction of inflammatory reaction and immune dysfunction, the breakdown of the intestinal barrier, the triggering of oxidative stress, and the intestinal microbiota imbalance, were explored. These signaling pathways, such as MAPK, Akt/mTOR, TNF, TGF-β, Wnt/β-catenin, PKA, NF-kB, NLRP3, AHR, TLR2, TLR4, IRE1/XBP1, Nrf2, and MLCK pathways, are implicated. The abnormal expression of micro-RNA also plays a critical role. Finally, we anticipate that this review can offer new perspectives and theoretical foundations for controlling intestinal health issues caused by mycotoxin contamination and promote the development of prevention and control products. Full article

Nowadays, there is special interest in promoting the consumption of ancestral crops and minimally processed foods with high nutritional value. However, besides nutritional issues, safety assessments must be addressed. This study aimed to evaluate mycotoxin contamination in five minimally processed traditional Ecuadorian foods: ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), and aflatoxins (AFs) in brown rice, lupin, and quinoa; OTA, FB₁, and deoxynivalenol (DON) in whole-wheat flour; and OTA and AFs in peanuts. Samples (45 samples of peanuts and whole-wheat flour, 47 of brown rice, 46 of quinoa, and 36 of lupin) were collected from local markets and supermarkets in the three most populated cities in Ecuador. Mycotoxins were determined by RP-HPLC with fluorescence and detection. Results were compared with the maximum permitted levels (MPLs) of European Regulation 2023/915/EC. Overall contamination reached up to 59.8% of the analyzed samples (38.4% with one mycotoxin and 21.5% with co-occurrence). OTA was the most prevalent mycotoxin (in 82.6% of quinoa, 76.7% of whole-wheat flour, 53.3% of peanuts, 48.6% of lupin, and 25.5% of brown rice), and a modest number of quinoa (17%) and lupin (5.7%) samples surpassed the MPLs. DON was found in 82.2% of whole-wheat flour (28.9% > MPL). FB₁ was detected in above 25% of brown rice and whole-wheat flour and in 9% of the quinoa samples. FB₁ levels were above the MPLs only for whole-wheat flour (17.8%). AFB₁ and AFG₁ showed similar prevalence (about 6.5 and 8.5%, respectively) in quinoa and rice and about 27% in peanuts. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of enhancing fungal control in the pre- and post-harvest stages of these foods, which are recognized for their high nutritional value and ancestral worth; consequently, the results present key issues related to healthy diet promotion and food sovereignty. This study provides compelling insights into mycotoxin occurrence in minimally processed Ecuadorian foods and highlights the need for further exposure assessments by combining population consumption data. Full article

Fumonisin B1, deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEA) are toxic secondary metabolites produced by Fusarium molds. These mycotoxins are common food and feed pollutants and represent a risk to human and animal health. Although the mycotoxins produced by this genus can cross the blood–brain barrier in many species, their effect on neuronal function remains unclear. We investigated the cell viability effects of these toxins on specified neural cell types, including mouse primary neuronal, astroglial, and mixed-cell cultures 24 or 48 h after mycotoxin administration. DON decreased cell viability in a dose-dependent manner, independent of the culture type. Fumonisin B1 was toxic in pure neuronal cultures only at high doses, but toxicity was attenuated in mixed and pure astroglial cultures. ZEA had significant effects on all culture types in 10 nM by increasing cell viability and network activity, as revealed by multi-electrode array measurements. Since ZEA is a mycoestrogen, we analyzed the effects of ZEA on the expression of estrogen receptor isotypes ERα and ERβ and the mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel via qRT-PCR. In neuronal and mixed cultures, ZEA administration decreased ERα expression, while in astroglial cultures, it induced the opposite effect. Thus, our results emphasize that Fusarium mycotoxins act in a cell-specific manner. Full article

Maize is one of the most important agricultural crops that has been cultivated in the Republic of Croatia for centuries. Fusarium mycotoxins as secondary metabolites of molds that naturally contaminate maize crops can have negative effects on human and animal health, but also on economic aspects. The aim of this study was to monitor the trend of natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins in maize crops from Croatia during a period of 10 years, from 2014 to 2024. A total of 1285 maize samples were analyzed for the contents of zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins B (FUM) and T-2/HT-2 toxin (T-2/HT-2) using validated ELISA methods. A high occurrence of the analyzed mycotoxins was found in all years examined, e.g., for ZEN 15–64%, DON 47–95%, FUM 60–96% and T-2/HT-2 24–89%. In addition, their concentrations ranged from 3.2–10,990 μg/kg, 18–25,000 μg/kg, 29–18,180 μg/kg and 9–595 μg/kg, respectively. The mycotoxin concentrations were found to differ from year to year, with an increasing trend observed for FUM and T-2/HT-2 in terms of concentrations and an increasing trend in the occurrence of all mycotoxins, with the exception of T-2/HT-2. Full article

Mycotoxins are synthesized by various fungal species and are known to exert toxic effects on vertebrates and other animals, even at low concentrations. However, the current countermeasure for mycotoxin contamination is random inspection of samples prior to shipment. In this study, we focused on Chlorella sorokiniana (CS) from Ishigaki Island, Japan, and examined its ability to detoxify deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA), and fumonisin B1 (FB1) in vitro and in vivo. The binding of CS to DON, OTA, and FB1 was evaluated in vitro. The detoxification of CS was demonstrated by monitoring its concentrations in the plasma and urine samples of male ICR mice. Plasma and urine samples were collected 30 min, 2 h, and 24 h after an oral administration of 5 mg/kg mycotoxins and/or 500 mg/kg CS. CS bound to more than 80% and 40% of DON and OTA, respectively, whereas the binding of CS to FB1 was less than 10%. The concentrations of DON and OTA in plasma and urine samples were substantially reduced by CS co-administration, whereas CS did not affect FB1 absorption. The co-administration of CS substantially inhibited the systemic absorption of DON and OTA. Full article

This study investigates the presence of mycotoxins in green coffee-based dietary supplements to ensure their safety, given the potential risks of contamination and the growing interest in them among consumers. A sample treatment based on a salting-out assisted liquid–liquid extraction (SALLE) followed by one-step solid-phase extraction (SPE) was selected for the extraction and clean-up of 15 mycotoxins followed by ultra-high performance chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry detection (UHPLC-MS/MS). The target mycotoxins included aflatoxins (AFG1, AFG2, AFB1, AFB2), Alternaria toxins (AOH, AME, TEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FB1, FB2), zearalenone (ZEN), trichothecenes (T-2, HT-2), enniatin B1 (ENNB1), and beauvericin (BEA). The proposed method was successfully characterized, obtaining high recoveries, a satisfactory precision, and low detection limits. Subsequently, the method was applied for the analysis of 16 commercial food supplements. The analysis revealed the presence of mycotoxins in all samples investigated with Fusarium mycotoxins as the most prevalent. The dietary exposure and risk characterization revealed a low level of risk, except for AFs where chronic exposure in adults may lead to potential health concerns. Full article

The replacement of ingredients from animal sources with plant-based ingredients is increasing the risk of contamination by mycotoxins in aquafeeds, potentially causing detrimental effects on fish welfare. However, limited research has been carried out so far on the impact of mycotoxins on fish health. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess the toxicological effects of the dietary emerging (enniatin B, ENNB) and regulated (fumonisin B1, FB1) mycotoxins (150 µg/kg) in different tissues of juvenile gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) after 28 days of dietary exposure. Fitness indexes, plasma metabolites, and biomarkers of oxidative stress, metabolism, cellular, and neurotoxic damage were assessed. The exposure to each mycotoxin was sufficient to cause distinct effects in fish tissues. ENNB appears to be the most harmful mycotoxin to S. aurata, inducing changes on alkaline phosphatase and lipase activities in plasma, as well as protein and lipid degradation in liver. Increased lipid degradation was also induced in the brain by FB1 alone or combined with ENNB, whereas the exposure to the mixture inhibited acetylcholinesterase activity. Overall, this study contributes by highlighting the toxicological attributes of ENNB, thus reinforcing the need to include this mycotoxin in future legislation. Full article

Fusarium verticillioides is one of the pathogenic fungi causing maize ear rot, and its secreted fumonisins accumulated in plants pose significant threats to human health. To reduce the incidence of maize ear rot and fumonisin contamination, this study isolated numerous endophytic fungi from maize plants. Through inhibition zone and dual culture assays, an endophytic fungal strain, FJ284, demonstrating notable antifungal activity against F. verticillioides was screened. 18S rDNA gene sequencing was employed for fungal identification, and the sequences were deposited in NCBI GenBank. FJ284 was identified as Penicillium oxalicum. The ethyl acetate extract of P. oxalicum was analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), revealing 52 compounds, including several secondary metabolites with documented anticancer, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. Furthermore, a spectroscopic method was developed to assess the inhibitory effect of strain FJ284 against F. verticillioides, showing maximum inhibition at 48 h. Finally, Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS) analyses confirmed that FJ284 significantly inhibited three fumonisins (suppression rates > 50%), with efficacy ranked as fumonisin B3 (FB3) > fumonisin B2 (FB2) > fumonisin B1 (FB1). Full article

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi that often contaminate food materials used in beer production, posing health risks to consumers. This study investigated the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in commercial beers commercially available in São Paulo, Brazil, and assessed the estimated daily intake (EDI) of quantifiable mycotoxins. Sixty beer samples from different brands and compositions (barley malt, malt with corn, and malt with rice) were analyzed for deoxynivalenol (DON); aflatoxins (AFs) B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂; ochratoxin A (OTA); T-2 toxin; fumonisins (F) (B₁ and B₂); and zearalenone (ZEN) using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. FB₁ was quantified in all samples, while DON, ZEN, OTA, AFB₁, and T-2 toxin were detected in 40, 65, 25, 20, and 10%, respectively. Mean levels of 2.38, 36.41, 0.19, 1.05, 0.78, and 0.47 ng/mL were observed for FB₁, DON, ZEN, OTA, AFB₁, and T-2 toxin, respectively. Mycotoxin co-occurrence was observed in 43 (71.7%) samples analyzed, with DON and FB₁ as the most frequent combination (20%). The EDI values of individual mycotoxins were generally below tolerable daily intakes established by international agencies. However, the co-occurrence of up to four different mycotoxins in beers warrants concern on the possible interactive toxic effects of mycotoxin mixtures and reinforces the necessity of specific regulations for ready-to-drink beverages in Brazil. Full article

Fusarium verticillioides is a globally prevalent phytopathogenic fungus responsible for multiple diseases in maize and a major producer of the mycotoxin fumonisin B1 (FB1), a highly toxic fungal secondary metabolite (FSM). The histone code, which includes reversible modifications such as acetylation and methylation, plays a critical role in regulating chromatin structure and gene expression. In fungi, di- and tri-methylation of histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9me2/3) serves as a key epigenetic mark associated with heterochromatin formation and transcriptional repression. In this study, we identified and characterized a putative heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) family member in F. verticillioides, designated FvHP1, based on conserved domain architecture and phylogenetic analyses. FvHP1 retains essential residues required for H3K9me2/3 recognition, supporting its functional conservation within the HP1 protein family. Phenotypic analysis of the ΔFvHP1 mutant revealed impaired vegetative growth, reduced conidiation and virulence, and altered FB1 mycotoxin production. Additionally, the accumulation of red pigment in the mutant was linked to the deregulation of secondary metabolism, specifically the overproduction of fusarubin-type naphthoquinones, such as 8-O-methylnectriafurone. These results support the role of FvHP1 in facultative heterochromatin-mediated repression of sub-telomeric biosynthetic gene clusters, including the pigment-associated PGL1 cluster. Our findings provide new insights into the epigenetic regulation of fungal pathogenicity and metabolite production, as well as the first evidence of a functional HP1 homolog in F. verticillioides. Full article

Both organic and conventional farmers are confronted with the issue of mycotoxin contamination of maize, but organic farming is considered by the public to present a higher risk. There are also concerns about the sanitary quality of maize processed as a foodstuff and marketed on farms through short distribution channels, and there is a need for data on mycotoxin contamination in such a farming system. With the objective to assess the diversity of contamination levels at harvest and to track the post-harvest fate of mycotoxins, maize grain samples were collected at organic farms from southwest France after harvest, storage and milling. There was a wide range of levels of contamination by trichothecenes A and B, zearalenone, and fumonisins. The presence of ochratoxin A and aflatoxins was scarce. In some farms, but not all, the technique of drying and initial storage in cribs resulted in increased levels of contamination by Fusarium toxins, but not aflatoxins. The transfer of mycotoxins in milling products was higher for flour than for meal. Data are discussed in terms of mycotoxin co-occurrence, correlations between concentrations, and compliance with European Union regulations. Full article