Search Results (188)

The world is divided into seven regional pools based on the serotype distribution and geographical spread of the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus. The Republic of Korea (ROK) belongs to Pool 1, where serotypes O, A, and Asia1 are endemic. Recently, the risk of incursions by the O/CATHAY topotype has increased in Pool 1, raising concerns about its potential introduction into the ROK. To assess the protective effectiveness of three commercial FMD vaccine strains—O1/Manisa + O/3039, O/Primorsky, and O1/Campos—currently used in the ROK against this topotype, an animal challenge experiment was conducted. Three treatment groups (n = 4 in each) of pigs received a single 2 mL injection of one of the vaccines at 8–10 weeks of age, and the other group (n = 2) served as the control. All pigs were challenged with the O/HKN/5/2019 virus (O/CATHAY topotype) at 21 days post-vaccination. All vaccines conferred protective effects, with O1/Campos demonstrating the highest efficacy by inducing fewest clinical signs and significantly reducing virus shedding in the treated groups compared with those in the control group. These findings suggest O1/Campos may serve as an emergency measure; nevertheless, the development of a vaccine specifically targeting the O/CATHAY topotype is warranted. Full article

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype SAT3 is a rarely studied serotype primarily circulating in southern Africa, with African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) serving as its key reservoir. In this study, we performed a comprehensive phylogenetic and phylodynamic analysis of SAT3 based on 81 full-length VP1 gene sequences collected between 1934 and 2018. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses revealed five distinct topotypes, each with clear geographic and host associations. Notably, topotypes I, II and III were observed in both African buffalo and cattle (Bos taurus), while topotype IV appeared restricted to African buffalo. Likelihood mapping indicated moderate to strong phylogenetic signal, and the mean substitution rate was estimated at 3.709 × 10⁻³ substitutions/site/year under a relaxed molecular clock. The time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) was traced back to 1875. Discrete phylogeographic reconstruction identified Zimbabwe as a major center, with multiple supported cross-border transmission routes. Host transition analysis further confirmed strong directional flow from buffalo to cattle (BF = 1631.09, pp = 1.0), highlighting the wildlife–livestock interface as a key driver of SAT3 persistence. Together, these results underscore the evolutionary complexity of SAT3 and the importance of integrating molecular epidemiology, spatial modeling, and host ecology to inform FMD control strategies in endemic regions. Full article

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), a vesicular disease, causes lesions in the mouth, nose, teats, and feet of cloven-hoofed animals. Vaccination remains the most effective method to prevent FMD outbreaks. Since 2010, South Korea has implemented nationwide vaccination and developed multiple domestic vaccine strains to achieve vaccine self-sufficiency. Here, we aimed to construct an infectious clone using the A/SKR/Yeoncheon/2017 virus, which exhibits the highest antigen productivity among previously developed vaccine strains. An infectious clone was constructed based on the A/Yeoncheon/SKR/2017 virus isolated during an FMD outbreak in Korea in 2017. The viral genome was amplified in two fragments and assembled into a full-length clone, from which infectious recombinant virus was successfully rescued. The rescued virus was confirmed via serotyping and transmission electron microscopy to exhibit canonical 25–30 nm icosahedral morphology. Under optimized culture conditions using suspension-adapted BHK-21 cells (multiplicity of infection 0.001; 12 h post-infection), the recombinant virus achieved titers of 10⁸ TCID₅₀/mL and produced 6.2 μg/mL of 146S antigen, comparable to its parental counterpart. The experimental vaccine formulated with the rescued virus (15 μg/dose), 1% saponin, 1% aluminum hydroxide gel, and ISA 206 VG, induced protective immunity in eight-week-old pigs, with vaccinated animals exhibiting no clinical signs following homologous challenge. To our knowledge, this study represents the first successful construction of an infectious clone derived from a field-isolated serotype A FMDV in South Korea. In the future, this A/SKR/Yeoncheon/2017 infectious clone can serve as a platform backbone for the rapid development of next-generation, high-yield vaccine seed strains through targeted epitope exchange. Full article

Background: Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals such as cattle and pigs, characterized by vesicular lesions in the mouth, nose, teats, and feet. Globally, the most commonly used FMD vaccines are inactivated vaccines produced by chemical inactivation of the infectious FMD virus (FMDV). This study aimed to establish an infectious clone of the O/Boeun/SKR/2017 virus that has demonstrated the highest antigen productivity among the various type O vaccine strains developed in South Korea to date. Methods: An infectious clone was generated from a type O virus isolated during the 2017 FMD outbreak in South Korea. The viral genome was divided into two fragments, each amplified separately, and subsequently ligated to produce a full-length infectious clone. Results: Rescue of infectious FMDV was confirmed using a commercial antigen detection kit and electron microscopy. Under optimized culture conditions, the rescued virus titer reached 2 × 10⁷ TCID₅₀/mL, and the antigen yield was 6.4 µg/mL. Following inactivation, the antigen was formulated into a vaccine and administered to pigs. Four weeks post-vaccination, challenge with the live virus resulted in no clinical symptoms, demonstrating complete protective efficacy. Conclusions: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing the construction of an infectious clone derived from a field FMDV isolate in South Korea and its application in vaccine development. The O/Boeun/SKR/2017 infectious clone may serve as a genetic backbone for the rapid generation of new FMD vaccine candidates with high antigen productivity by substituting epitopes from other FMDV. Full article

Background/Objectives: Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) remains a significant threat to livestock, particularly in the pool 1 region (East Asia), where serotype A is prevalent. Vaccination is the most effective control measure, and the selection of the appropriate vaccine strain is critical for ensuring effective protection. The A/ASIA/Sea-97 lineage (and its G1 and G2 sublineages) has been reported in this region, necessitating the development of an appropriate vaccine. This study aimed to develop a potent candidate vaccine strain capable of providing effective protection against the G1 and G2 sublineages of the A/ASIA/Sea-97 lineage. Methods: Chimeric vaccine development was achieved by replacing and inserting antigenic sites derived from the A/ASIA/Sea-97 G1 (VP4, VP2, and VP3) and G2 sublineage (VP1 and GH loop) strains. The candidate strains were evaluated for protective efficacy in mice and pigs. Results: In mice, the two candidate vaccines provided strong protection against challenge with a G1 sublineage virus (A/POC/2010) and A22 Iraq and two G2 sublineage viruses (A/YC/2017 and A/GP/2018). Subsequently, the most effective candidate was selected for testing in pigs. One month after vaccination, the pigs were protected against two A/ASIA/Sea-97 viruses (A/POC/2010 and A/GP/2018) prevalent in East Asia. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that the developed strain has significant potential as a vaccine against the type A FMD viruses circulating in East Asia and that vaccination with this strain could be an effective strategy for regional FMD control. Full article

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) remains a devastating threat to livestock health and food security in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), where complex interactions among host, environmental, and anthropogenic factors constitute an optimal endemic landscape for virus circulation. Here, we applied an interpretable machine learning (ML) statistical framework to model the epidemiological landscape of FMD between 2005 and 2025. Furthermore, we compared the ecological niche of serotypes O and A in the MENA region. Our ML algorithms demonstrated high predictive performance (accuracies > 85%) in identifying the geographical extent of high-risk areas, including under-reported regions such as the Southern and Northeastern Arabian Peninsula. Sheep density emerged as the dominant predictor for all FMD outbreaks and serotype O, with significant non-linear relationships with wind, temperature, and human population density. In contrast, serotype A risk was primarily influenced by buffalo density and proximity to roads and cropland. Our in-depth interaction and Shapley value analyses provided fine-scale interpretability by interrogating the threshold effects of each feature in shaping the spatial risk of FMD. Further implementation of our analytical pipeline to guide risk-based surveillance programs and intervention efforts will help reduce the economic and public health impacts of this devastating animal pathogen. Full article

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection affecting livestock. Although inactivated vaccines are commonly used, their effectiveness is limited by an immunity gap. Therefore, complementary antiviral strategies are required for effective control and prevention. Lignans, plant-derived compounds, have shown promising antiviral properties, yet their potential against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) remains underexplored. This study employed virtual screening to identify lignan compounds targeting viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (3D^pol). Six lignan compounds were selected for cytotoxicity and antiviral activity evaluation including pre-viral entry, post-viral entry, and protective effect assays. Antiviral activity assay showed that (-)-asarinin and sesamin exhibit potent inhibition effects in the post-viral entry with EC50 of 15.11 μM and 52.98 μM, respectively, using immunoperoxidase monolayer assay. Both compounds exhibited dose-dependent reduction in viral replication with significant suppression of negative-strand RNA production. Lignans’ ability to target FMDV 3D^pol was further confirmed using a cell-based FMDV minigenome assay. Among the tested lignans, (-)-asarinin demonstrated remarkable inhibition of GFP expression (IC50 value at 10.37 μM), while sesamin required a higher concentration for similar effects. In silico prediction revealed that these lignans preferentially bind to FMDV 3D^pol active site. These findings are the first to establish (-)-asarinin and sesamin as promising antiviral candidates against FMDV. Full article

Senecavirus A (SVA) is an emerging threat to swine populations due to its potential to cause vesicular lesions, which are difficult to differentiate from other vesicular diseases of swine such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), requiring significant resources for differential diagnosis. The first Taiwanese isolate of SVA was identified in 2006, although the first clinical case was not reported until 2012. The genetic characteristics and seroprevalence of SVA in Taiwan remain unclear. This study aimed to assess the seroprevalence and genetic diversity of SVA in nursery/weaned swine and finisher swine on Taiwanese pig farms. Phylogenetic analysis of seven Taiwanese SVA isolates revealed clustering into groups I and II. The 2006 and 2012 isolates shared 95.5% and 95.7% identity, respectively, with an early USA strain (MT360258), while more recent strains collected between 2018 and 2022 exhibited 95.7–98.8% identity with a 2020 USA strain (MZ733977). Serological analysis of swine from 300 farms showed significantly higher herd-level seroprevalence in nursery/weaned swine (53%) than finisher swine (6.7%). Furthermore, comparative analysis of nine known B cell epitopes showed high sequence conservation across Taiwanese and global strains. These findings provide important baseline data on the genetic diversity and seroprevalence of SVA in Taiwan and support the development of improved surveillance strategies for this emerging swine pathogen. Full article

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of livestock caused by the FMD virus (FMDV). It is not dangerous to humans but can cause severe disruption to the farming sector and hampers trade in animals and animal products. Given the characteristic of transmissibility of the virus, the legislation in force in the European Union requires that some control activities be initiated in peacetime: the so-called “emergency preparedness”. As part of a research project on FMD, a dynamic transmission model was developed to test the effectiveness of the main control strategies in different livestock settings in Italy. This manuscript focuses on the control of the disease in densely populated livestock areas (DPLAs). Reduction in farm density was simulated to identify a threshold density compatible with disease control in the study area and to understand whether this was acceptable in terms of the sustainability of the livestock production system. Considering that in some municipalities the density of animals greatly exceeded the identified threshold, we adopted an original risk-based approach aimed at identifying farms which were most likely to play a central role in FMDV transmission. This approach has proven to be the most effective in controlling the spread of FMDV and can be proposed for practical applications where limited information on contacts between farms is available. Full article

The Sultanate of Oman boasts remarkable biodiversity, exemplified by such species as the Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) and the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), national symbols that highlight the extensive conservation efforts required to protect the country’s natural heritage. During decades, Omani authorities have taken significant measures to safeguard wildlife and preserve the natural environment. A sanctuary dedicated to the reintroduction of the Arabian Oryx, after extinction in nature in 1972, was established in 1980 in the Al Wusta Governorate under the patronage of the Royal Diwan and currently administrated by the recently established Environment Authority. During the almost 40 years since the reintroduction and the creation of the sanctuary, the oryx population has grown slowly but constantly. In 2021, the sanctuary hosted 738 oryx, allowing the start of the reintroduction of the species into the natural environment. Small groups of animals were released into the wild in selected areas. No animal health adverse events were recorded, and mortality was generally due to injuries received as a consequence of fighting, in particular during mating season. Standard veterinary care, including control of internal and external parasites, was regularly provided. In some occasions, immunization against certain diseases, such as clostridial infections, pasteurellosis, or mycoplasmosis, was also applied. In 2023, an FMD outbreak in cattle reported in Dhofar, about 500 km from the Al Wusta sanctuary, motivated specific prophylactic actions to prevent the risk of diffusion to oryx. From December 2023 to January 2024, an immunization program was undertaken using an FMD vaccine against serotypes A, O, and SAT 1, mostly in male oryx, while pregnant oryx were avoided for abortion risk due to handling. The following year, in January 2025, a severe outbreak occurred in oryx herds held in the sanctuary. The rapid onset and the spread of clinical symptoms among animals (100% morbidity in the second day after the first appearance of signs in some individuals) were suggestive of a highly contagious disease. The animals suffered from severe depression and inappetence, rapidly followed by abundant salivation, erosions of the oral mucosa and tongue, and diarrhea, with a short course characterized by prostration and death of the animal in the most severe cases. Therapeutical attempts (administration of antibiotics and rehydration) were mostly ineffective. Laboratory investigations (ELISA and PCR) ruled out contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), Johne’s disease and Peste des petits ruminants (PPR). Both serology and antigen detection showed positiveness to foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Out of a total population of 669 present in the sanctuary at the beginning of the outbreak, 226 (33.78%) oryx died. Despite the vaccinal status, the 38.49% of dead animals resulted being vaccinated against FMD. Taking into account the incalculable value of the species, the outbreak represented a very dangerous event that risked wiping out the decades of conservation efforts. Therefore, all the available means, such as accrued biosecurity and adequate prophylaxis, should be implemented to prevent the recurrence of such health risks. The delicate equilibrium of wild fauna in Oman requires study and support for an effective protection, in line with the national plan “Vision 2040”, targeting the inclusion of the Sultanate within the 20 best virtuous countries for wildlife protection. Full article

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), bluetongue (BT), and Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) are major emerging and re-emerging viral infections affecting ruminants. These diseases can threaten livestock health, food security, and economic stability in low- and middle-income countries, including Algeria. However, their dynamics remain mostly unknown, limiting the implementation of effective preventive and control measures. We analyzed outbreak data reported by Algerian veterinary authorities and the WAHIS database from 2014 to 2022 for FMD; from 2006 to 2020 for BT; and from 2011 to 2022 for PPR to investigate their spatiotemporal patterns and environmental drivers. Over these periods, Algeria reported 1142 FMD outbreaks (10,409 cases; 0.16/1000 incidence), 167 BT outbreaks (602 cases; 0.018/1000), and 222 PPR outbreaks (3597 cases; 0.096/1000). Small ruminants were the most affected across all diseases, although cattle bore the highest burden of FMD. BT primarily impacted sheep, and PPR showed a higher incidence in goats. Disease peaks occurred in 2014 for FMD, 2008 for BT, and 2019 for PPR. Spatial analyses revealed distinct ecological hotspots: sub-humid and semi-arid zones for FMD and BT, and semi-arid/Saharan regions for PPR. These patterns may be influenced by species susceptibility, animal movement, trade, and climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall. The absence of consistent temporal trends and the persistence of outbreaks suggest multiple drivers, including insufficient vaccination coverage, under-reporting, viral evolution, and environmental persistence. Our findings underscore the importance of targeted species- and region-specific control strategies, including improved surveillance, cross-border coordination, and climate-informed risk mapping. Strengthening One Health frameworks will be essential to mitigate the re-emergence and spread of these diseases. Full article

Background: Since the massive outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in South Korea in 2010–2011, cloven-hoofed livestock have been immunized with serotype O and A vaccines across the country. Other serotypes of FMD vaccines were stockpiled in overseas FMD vaccine factories as antigen banks. Once a manufacturing facility has been established in South Korea, the overseas antigen banks will be replaced by domestic one. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the commercial potential of the previously developed SAT2 vaccine candidate (SAT2 ZIM-R). Methods: The optimal condition was determined at various virus concentrations, infection times, and pH levels, resulting in 0.01 MOI for SAT2 ZIM-R for 24 h infection at a pH of 7.5. Results: When the SAT2 ZIM-R virus was produced in flasks from 40 to 1000 mL in fivefold increments, all scales of production yielded > 7.0 µg/mL of antigens. Using a bioreactor, 5.6 µg/mL of antigens was recovered from a 1 L viral culture. The optimal conditions of viral inactivation kinetics were determined to be 1 mM of binary ethyleneimine (BEI) treatment at 26 °C for 24 h, with approximately 91% of the antigen being retained after virus inactivation. When the SAT2 ZIM-R experimental vaccine was administered twice to pigs, the neutralizing antibody titer increased approximately 500-fold after booster immunization. Conclusions: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate the antigen productivity, viral inactivation kinetics, and immunogenicity of the SAT vaccine strain in pigs. In the future, the SAT2 ZIM-R vaccine may be a useful candidate vaccine for a domestic antigen bank. Full article

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) significantly impacts global livestock industries, with raw milk transportation posing a recognized pathway for viral dissemination, particularly in endemic regions. This study aimed to evaluate the risk of FMD virus (FMDV) introduction and transmission to dairy farms via raw milk transportation in Ban Thi District, Thailand. A qualitative risk assessment methodology, adhering to WOAH guidelines, was employed. Data were collected through structured farmer surveys (n = 109), expert interviews (n = 12), and reviews of national disease surveillance data and scientific literature. The risk assessment, utilizing a scenario tree approach for domestic dairy cattle, revealed a moderate overall risk of FMDV transmission. This finding is primarily attributed to critical gaps in on-farm biosecurity practices, potential contamination at milk collection centers, and significant challenges in detecting subclinical carrier animals. While the qualitative approach presented inherent limitations and uncertainties, the study successfully highlighted key vulnerabilities. The results underscore the urgent necessity for implementing targeted biosecurity protocols, developing more robust surveillance strategies for FMDV carriers, and establishing standardized risk assessment frameworks to mitigate potential outbreaks and protect the regional dairy industry. Full article

Senecavirus A (SVA) is an endemic pathogen with ongoing relevance to the U.S. swine industry due to its clinical resemblance to foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and its potential impact on animal health and trade. This study analyzes the incidence and geographic distribution of SVA outbreaks in U.S. breeding herds from January 2015 to December 2024. We used enhanced surveillance by combining diagnostic data from veterinary diagnostic laboratories and practitioners’ reports to assess SVA incidence, identifying temporal fluctuations and regional patterns. Our findings indicate that the cumulative incidence of SVA in U.S. breeding herds is low overall (<2.5% per year), with peak incidence observed during the third and fourth quarters of the calendar year. Outbreaks are more frequently reported in the Midwest. Our results suggest potential seasonality or regional factors influencing disease transmission. The median time interval between SVA outbreaks for sites experiencing more than one outbreak is 402 days. This study provides valuable insights into the current epidemiology of SVA in U.S. breeding herds, and highlights the need for continued monitoring and preparedness to prevent future outbreaks. Full article

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) poses significant challenges to livestock management and agricultural economies worldwide. This study examines the effect of farmers’ sociodemographic factors on livestock infected with Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and analyzes its socioeconomic impact on smallholder farmers in Indonesia. This study collected data from 992 households (202 infected and 790 non-infected) in the special region of Yogyakarta province. The research used propensity score matching (PSM) treatment effect analysis to assess the socioeconomic impact of FMD outbreaks on smallholder farmers. Our results demonstrated that FMD significantly increased (p < 0.01) smallholder farmers’ social behavior, including knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP). Furthermore, farmers whose animals are already infected with FMD must spend an additional IDR 258,000 to IDR 270,000 on treatment compared to non-infected ones. This study provides empirical evidence that farmer characteristics, including women’s decision-making, income, farming group, and cattle ownership, determine the likelihood of FMD infection, which implies that farmers with specific characteristics may heighten the risk of FMD infection. We concluded that FMD has changed social behavior and accelerated economic loss for smallholder farmers. Hence, farmers with animals at risk of FMD infection are prioritized in FMD control programs. Full article