Search Results (3,301)

To address the bottlenecks of low water and fertilizer utilization efficiency and limited yield potential inherent in Henan Province’s traditional winter wheat cultivation model of “furrow irrigation + conventional row seeding”, this study delved into the synergistic regulatory mechanisms of drip irrigation combined with wide-row precision seeding. It focused on their effects on the physiological ecology and yield-quality traits of winter wheat. A two-factor experiment, encompassing “sowing method × irrigation method” will be carried out during the 2024–2025 wheat growing season, featuring four treatments: furrow irrigation + conventional row seeding (QT), drip irrigation + conventional row seeding (DT), furrow irrigation + wide-row precision seeding (QK), and drip irrigation + wide-row precision seeding (DK). Results reveal that wide-row precision seeding optimized the canopy structure, raising the leaf area index (LAI) at the heading stage by 20.19% compared to QT, thereby enhancing ventilation and light penetration and reducing plant competition. Drip irrigation, with its precise water delivery, boosted the net photosynthetic rate of the flag leaf 35 days after flowering by 62.99% relative to QT, stabilizing root water uptake and significantly delaying leaf senescence. The combined effect of the two treatments (DK treatment) synergistically improved the canopy structure and photosynthetic performance of winter wheat, prolonging the functional period of green leaves by 29.41%. It established a highly efficient photosynthetic cycle, marked by “high stomatal conductance-low intercellular CO₂ concentration-high net photosynthetic rate”. The peak net photosynthetic rate (P_n) 13 days post-flowering rose by 23.9% compared to QT. Moreover, while reducing total water consumption by 21.4%, it substantially increased water use efficiency (WUE) and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) by 43.2% and 14.2%, respectively, compared to the QT control. Ultimately, the DK treatment achieved a synergistic enhancement in both yield and quality: grain yield increased by 14.7% compared to QT, wet gluten content reached 35.5%, and total protein yield per unit area rose by 13.1%. This study demonstrates that coupling drip irrigation with wide-row precision seeding is an effective strategy for achieving water-saving, high-yield, and high-quality winter wheat cultivation in the Huang-Huai-Hai region. This is achieved through the synergistic optimization of canopy structure, enhanced photosynthetic efficiency, and improved WUE. These findings provide a mechanistic basis and a scalable agronomic solution for sustainable intensification of winter wheat production under water-limited conditions in major cereal-producing regions. Full article

Oocytes cultured in vitro are exposed to high oxygen tension and lack follicular antioxidants, leading to redox imbalance. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), a marine long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, possesses strong antioxidant activity. Here, using pigs as a model, we examined the effects of EPA on oocyte in vitro maturation (IVM) and subsequent developmental competence. Cumulus–oocyte complexes were cultured with EPA, followed by assessment of nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation and embryonic development; transcriptomic and proteomic analyses were conducted to explore underlying mechanisms. Supplementation with 10 µM EPA significantly improved maturation and blastocyst rates by reducing spindle defects, facilitating a more uniform organization of cortical granules and mitochondria. EPA increased resolvin E1 accumulation and reduced cumulus-cell apoptosis through downregulation of TNF-α and BAX and upregulation of BCL2. In MII oocytes, EPA lowered apoptosis, DNA damage, and ROS levels while enhancing SOD2 and GPX4 expression. Mitochondrial quality and turnover were improved via upregulation of PPARGC1A, NDUFS2, PINK1, LC3, FIS1, MUL1, and OPA1, alongside strengthened ER–mitochondria contacts. These findings demonstrate that EPA alleviates oxidative stress, optimizes mitochondrial function, and enhances porcine oocyte maturation and developmental competence in a parthenogenetic model, highlighting its potential as a marine-derived functional additive for reproductive biotechnology. Future studies will be required to validate these effects under fertilization-based embryo production systems and to further refine dose–response relationships using expanded embryo-quality endpoints. Full article

Although biochar and manure have been shown in many studies to influence abundant microbial communities, their differential effects on the rare and abundant microbial communities in soybean–corn intercropping systems remain poorly understood. Understanding how biochar and manure differentially shape these unique communities is critical to optimizing the sustainability and productivity of intercropping systems. Therefore, this study employed ITS and 16S rRNA sequencing to obtain the relative ASV abundance and thereby investigated how partial substitution of inorganic fertilizer with pig manure and corn stalk biochar influences the diversity, structure, assembly, and co-occurrence patterns of abundant and rare microbiota in border-row rhizospheres. Diversity analysis revealed that biochar and manure significantly increased the richness and evenness of rare fungal communities compared with conventional fertilization. In contrast, the richness and evenness of rare bacterial communities and abundant fungal communities remained stable. Null model analysis revealed that assembly processes shifted toward determinism for rare bacterial communities and toward stochasticity for rare fungal, abundant bacterial, and abundant fungal communities. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed that biochar and manure synergistically reduced the complexity and interaction strength of the rare bacterial network, whereas increasing the complexity and connectivity of the rare fungal network. These results demonstrate that biochar and manure promote distinct community assembly processes in border rows, thereby reshaping the ecological networks of rare and abundant taxa. Full article

Uncertainty-aware decision-making increasingly relies on multimodal sensing pipelines that must fuse correlated measurements, propagate uncertainty, and trigger reliable control actions. This study develops a unified mathematical framework for multimodal data fusion and Bayesian decision-making under uncertainty. The approach integrates adaptive Covariance Intersection (aCI) for correlation-robust sensor fusion, a Gaussian state–space backbone with Kalman filtering, heteroskedastic Bayesian regression with full posterior sampling via an affine-invariant MCMC sampler, and a Bayesian likelihood-ratio test (LRT) coupled to a risk-sensitive proportional–derivative (PD) control law. Theoretical guarantees are provided by bounding the state covariance under stability conditions, establishing convexity of the aCI weight optimization on the simplex, and deriving a Bayes-risk-optimal decision threshold for the LRT under symmetric Gaussian likelihoods. A proof-of-concept agro-environmental decision-support application is considered, where heterogeneous data streams (IoT soil sensors, meteorological stations, and drone-derived vegetation indices) are fused to generate early-warning alarms for crop stress and to adapt irrigation and fertilization inputs. The proposed pipeline reduces predictive variance and sharpens posterior credible intervals (up to 34% narrower 95% intervals and 44% lower NLL/Brier score under heteroskedastic modeling), while a Bayesian uncertainty-aware controller achieves 14.2% lower water usage and 35.5% fewer false stress alarms compared to a rule-based strategy. The framework is mathematically grounded yet domain-independent, providing a probabilistic pipeline that propagates uncertainty from raw multimodal data to operational control actions, and can be transferred beyond agriculture to robotics, signal processing, and environmental monitoring applications. Full article

The long-term effects of integrated nutrient management (INM) on crop performance and soil health—particularly within sub-humid environments—remain insufficiently explored. This research aimed to quantify the relationship between the soil quality index (SQI) and overall system productivity. The SQI represents a numerical indicator of soil functioning and its biological and chemical integrity, while system productivity reflects the economic yield generated by the cropping system. A long-term experiment initiated in 1972 formed the foundation for this study, which was conducted from 2019 to 2021 and included eleven nutrient management treatments. These comprised the following treatments: inorganic fertilizers alone (100% NPK, 150% NPK, 100% NP, 100% N, and 100% NPK without sulfur); combinations of organic and inorganic inputs (50% NPK + FYM and 100% NPK + FYM); lime with inorganic fertilizers (100% NPK + lime); zinc with inorganics (100% NPK + Zn); hand weeding with inorganics (100% NPK + HW); an unfertilized control. The study was implemented in a maize–wheat rotation under the sub-humid climatic conditions of Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India. System productivity was estimated using wheat grain equivalent yield, and SQI values were generated from selected soil properties. These indicators—along with the sustainable yield index (SYI)—were applied to assess the effectiveness of each treatment. The results showed that the 100% NPK + FYM combination produced the highest SQI, followed by 100% NPK + lime, whereas the 100% N treatment yielded the lowest value. Overall, the findings highlight the crucial role of adopting sustainable nutrient management practices to maintain soil quality and optimize productivity in sub-humid agricultural systems. Full article

The introduction of Super-High-Density (SHD) olive orchards represents a crucial innovation in modern olive growing, enhancing sustainability. However, the long-term success of these planting systems depends strongly on cultivar selection, combining suitable vegetative and reproductive traits. This three-year field study investigated key floral biology parameters—flowering phenograms, gynosterility, and self-compatibility—of ten olive cultivars grown under irrigated conditions in southern Italy: ‘Arbequina’, ‘Arbosana’, ‘Cima di Bitonto’, ‘Coratina’, ‘Don Carlo’, ‘Frantoio’, ‘Favolosa’ (=‘Fs-17’), ‘I-77’, ‘Koroneiki’, and ‘Urano’ (=‘Tosca’). Flowering phenograms varied significantly across years and cultivars, showing temporal shifts related to chilling accumulation and yield of the previous year. Early blooming cultivars (‘Arbequina’, ‘Arbosana’, and ‘Coratina’) exhibited partial flowering overlap with mid-season ones, enhancing cross-pollination opportunities. Quantitative analysis of flowering overlap revealed that most cultivar combinations exceeded the 70% threshold required for effective pollination, although specific genotypes (‘Coratina’, ‘Fs-17’, and especially ‘I-77’) showed critical mismatches, while ‘Frantoio’ and ‘Arbequina’ emerged as the most reliable pollinizers. Gynosterility exhibited statistical differences among cultivars and canopy positions: ‘I-77’ showed the highest values (71.4%), while ‘Coratina’ and ‘Cima di Bitonto’ showed the lowest ones (7.3 and 8.4%, respectively). The median portions of the canopies generally displayed a greater number of sterile flowers (29.4%), reflecting the combined effect of genetic and environmental factors such as light exposure. In the inflorescence, the majority of gynosterile flowers were concentrated in the lower part, for all canopy portions (modal value). Self-compatibility tests were performed considering a fruit set of 1% as a threshold to discriminate. For open pollination, the fruit set was highly variable among cultivars, ranging from 0.5% in ‘I-77’ to 4.7% in ‘Arbosana’. Apart from ‘I77’, all varieties achieved a fruit set greater than 1%. Instead, for the self-pollination, only ‘Arbequina’, ‘Koroneiki’, ‘Frantoio’, and ‘Cima di Bitonto’ could be identified as pseudo-self-compatible, whereas ‘Coratina’, ‘Fs-17’, and the others were clearly self-incompatible and therefore unsuitable for monovarietal orchards in areas with limited availability of pollen. By integrating self-compatibility and gynosterility data, the cultivars were ranked according to reproductive aptitude, identifying ‘Cima di Bitonto’ and ‘Frantoio’ as the most fertile genotypes, whereas ‘Don Carlo’ and particularly ‘I-77’ showed severe genetic sterility constraints. The findings underline the critical role of floral biology in defining reproductive efficiency and varietal adaptability in SHD systems. This research provides valuable insights for optimizing cultivar selection, orchard design, and management practices, contributing to the development of sustainable, climate-resilient olive production models for Mediterranean environments. Full article

A two-factor experiment was conducted using the cultivar ‘Xin you No. 2’ (Citrullus lanatus) to identify an efficient and green production model for drip-irrigated watermelon under plastic mulch in Southern Xinjiang. A basal organic fertilizer was applied at 2250 kg·ha⁻¹. The experimental design comprised three irrigation levels, maintaining soil moisture at 60–70% (W1), 70–80% (W2), and 80–90% (W3) of field capacity, and three nitrogen application rates: 180 (N1), 240 (N2), and 300 (N3) kg·ha⁻¹. This study systematically investigated the effects of water–nitrogen coupling on watermelon yield, quality, water use efficiency, and nitrogen partial factor productivity. The W2N2 treatment achieved the highest yield of 64,617.59 kg·ha⁻¹. Vine length, stem diameter, and dry matter accumulation increased with increasing nitrogen application under the W1 and W2 irrigation levels, but exhibited an initial increase followed by a decrease under the W3 condition. Water restriction combined with increased nitrogen application significantly enhanced the central sugar content, with the W1N3 treatment increasing it by 15.69% compared to CK. Conversely, the W1N1 treatment was most conducive to vitamin C accumulation, showing a 49.88% increase over CK. The total water consumption across the different treatments ranged from 362.12 to 493.92 mm. Both water use efficiency and irrigation water use efficiency reached their maximum values under the W1N3 treatment, at 21.94 kg·m⁻³ and 35.05 kg·m⁻³, respectively. In contrast, the highest partial factor productivity of nitrogen (NPFP) was observed under W3N1, reaching 239.33 kg·kg⁻¹. A comprehensive multi-index evaluation using the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method indicated that the W1N3 treatment achieved the highest relative closeness (0.669), identifying it as the optimal water–nitrogen combination. Full article

Growing pressure on water resources and mineral fertilizer use calls for innovative and resource-efficient agri-food systems. Aquaponics, integrating aquaculture and hydroponics, represents a promising approach for sustainable greenhouse production. This study, aiming to explore alternative water and nutrient sources for greenhouse tomato production without compromising plant adaptability or yield, evaluated the co-cultivation of grape tomato and rainbow trout in a vertical decoupled aquaponic system under controlled greenhouse conditions. Two aquaponic nutrient strategies were tested: unmodified aquaponic water (AP) and complemented aquaponic water (CAP), with conventional hydroponics (HP) as a control, in a Deep Water Culture hydroponic system. Plant performance was assessed through marketable yield and physiological parameters, while system performance was evaluated using combined-biomass Energy Use Efficiency (EUE), Freshwater Use Efficiency (fWUE) and Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE), accounting for both plant and fish production. CAP significantly improved tomato yield (9.86 kg m⁻²) compared to AP (2.40 kg m⁻²), although it remained lower than HP (12.14 kg m⁻²). Fresh WUE was comparable between CAP and HP (9.22 vs. 9.24 g L⁻¹), demonstrating effective water reuse. In contrast, EUE and NUE were lower in CAP, reflecting the additional energy demand of the recirculating aquaculture system and nutrient limitations of fish wastewater. These results highlight aquaponics as a water-efficient production system while emphasizing that optimized nutrient management and energy strategies are critical for improving its overall sustainability and performance. Full article

Broodstock nutrition is a key determinant of reproductive output in marine fishes because lipids support yolk formation, embryonic development, and early larval viability. However, the allocation of lipid classes between fertilized eggs and the egg envelope (chorion) remains poorly characterized for many tropical species. In this study, we performed a comparative lipidomic analysis of dechorionated fertilized egg contents and isolated chorion from three tropical marine fishes (Trachinotus ovatus, Platax teira, and Plectropomus leopardus) using UHPLC–Q Exactive Orbitrap MS/MS. Multivariate analyses revealed clear tissue- and species-specific lipid patterns. Dechorionated eggs were enriched in energy-storage lipids, dominated by triacylglycerols and essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, whereas chorion tissues contained higher levels of structural and signaling lipids, including phosphatidylinositols and sphingolipids. Each species exhibited a distinct lipid signature, with T. ovatus characterized by higher secosteroids and free fatty acids, P. teira by glycerophosphoethanolamines and phosphoinositols, and P. leopardus by abundant triradylglycerols. Pathway enrichment highlighted glycerophospholipid metabolism and sphingolipid signaling as prominent processes during early development. These findings clarify lipid partitioning between dechorionated fertilized egg contents and the chorion and provide a biochemical rationale for optimizing species-specific broodstock diets to enhance egg quality in tropical marine aquaculture. Full article

Agricultural activities are major contributors to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions accounting for 40% and 60% of total agricultural emissions, respectively. Therefore, developing effective emission reduction pathways in agriculture is crucial for achieving carbon budget balance. This article synthesizes the impact of farmland management practices on GHG emissions, evaluates prevalent accounting methods and their applicable scenarios, and proposes mitigation strategies based on systematic analysis. The present review (2000–2025) indicates that fertilizer management dominates research focus (accounting for over 50%), followed by water management (approximately 18%) and tillage practices (approximately 14%). Critically, the effects of these practices extend beyond GHG emissions, necessitating concurrent consideration of crop yields, soil health, and ecosystem resilience. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct joint research by integrating multiple approaches such as water-saving irrigation, conservation tillage and intercropping of leguminous crops, so as to enhance productivity and soil quality while reducing emissions. The GHG accounting framework and three primary accounting methods (In situ measurement, Satellite remote sensing, and Model simulation) each exhibit distinct advantages and limitations, requiring scenario-specific selection. Further refinement of these methodologies is imperative to optimize agricultural practices and achieve meaningful GHG reductions. Full article

Rice–crab co-culture systems (RC) represent promising sustainable intensification approaches, yet their nitrogen (N) cycling and optimal fertilization strategies remain poorly characterized. In this study, we compared RC with rice monoculture system (RM) across four N gradients (0, 150, 210, and 270 kg N·hm⁻²), assessing N dynamics in field water and N distribution in soil. The results showed that field water ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N) concentrations increased nonlinearly, showing sharp increases beyond 210 kg N·hm⁻². Notably, crab activity in the RC altered the N transformation and transport processes, leading to a prolonged presence of nitrate nitrogen (NO₃⁻-N) in field water for two additional days after tillering fertilization compared to RM. This indicates a critical window for potential nitrogen loss risk, rather than enhanced retention, 15 days after basal fertilizer application. Compared to RM, RC exhibited enhanced nitrogen retention capacity, with NO₃⁻-N concentrations remaining elevated for an additional two days following tillering fertilization, suggesting a potential critical period for nitrogen loss risk. Post-harvest soil analysis revealed contrasting nitrogen distribution patterns: RC showed enhanced NH₄⁺-N accumulation in surface layers (0–2 cm) with minimal vertical NO₃⁻-N redistribution, while RM exhibited progressive NO₃⁻-N increases in subsurface layers (2–10 cm) with increasing fertilizer rates. The 210 kg N·hm⁻² rate proved optimal for the RC, producing a rice yield 12.08% higher than that of RM and sustaining high crab yields, while avoiding the excessive aqueous N levels seen at higher rates. It is important to note that these findings are based on a single-site, single-growing season field experiment conducted in Panjin, Liaoning Province, and thus the general applicability of the optimal nitrogen rate may require further validation across diverse environments. We conclude that a fertilization rate of 210 kg N·hm⁻² is the optimal strategy for RC, effectively balancing productivity and environmental sustainability. This finding provides a clear, quantitative guideline for precise N management in integrated aquaculture systems. Full article

Addressing the challenges of low resource-use efficiency and supply–demand mismatch in Hami melon production, this study investigated the interactive effects of irrigation and fertilization to identify an optimal regime that balances yield, water conservation, and resource-use efficiency (i.e., water use efficiency and fertilizer partial factor productivity). A greenhouse experiment was conducted in Hami, Xinjiang, employing a two-factor design with five irrigation levels (W1–W5: 60–100% of full irrigation) and three fertilization levels (F1–F3: 80–100% of standard rate), replicated three times. Growth parameters, yield, water use efficiency (WUE), and partial factor productivity of fertilizer (PFP) were evaluated and comprehensively analyzed using the entropy-weighted TOPSIS method, regression analysis, and the NSGA-II multi-objective genetic algorithm. Results demonstrated that irrigation volume was the dominant factor influencing growth and yield. The W4F3 treatment (90% irrigation with 100% fertilization) achieved the optimal outcome, yielding 75.74 t ha⁻¹—a 9.71% increase over the control—while simultaneously enhancing WUE and PFP. Both the entropy-weighted TOPSIS evaluation (C = 0.998) and regression analysis (optimal irrigation level at w = 0.79, ~90% of full irrigation) identified W4F3 as superior. NSGA-II optimization further validated this, generating Pareto-optimal solutions highly consistent with the experimental optimum. The model-predicted optimal regime for greenhouse Hami melon in Xinjiang is an irrigation amount of 3276 m³ ha⁻¹ and a fertilizer application rate of 814.8 kg ha⁻¹. This regime facilitates a 10% reduction in irrigation water and a 5% reduction in fertilizer input without compromising yield, alongside significantly improved resource-use efficiencies. Full article

Targeted coverage of crushed grass segments under the fruit tree canopy synergistically achieves the agronomic goals of soil moisture conservation, weed suppression, and soil fertility improvement. To address issues like incomplete grass cutting and high risk of damaging fruit trees in complex orchard environments with traditional mowing devices, a lateral grass discharge blade for orchard mowers was designed. Based on airflow field theory, the dynamic basis of the airflow field, critical conditions for carrying crushed grass segments, and their movement laws on the blade and in the air were analyzed to identify key factors affecting discharge. CFD simulations were conducted using the Flow Simulation module of SolidWorks 2021 to explore the effects of the blade airfoil’s long side, short side lengths, and horizontal included angle on the outlet velocity and outlet volumetric flow rate of crushed grass segments, determining the reasonable parameter range. With these three as test factors and the two indicators above, orthogonal tests and parameter optimization were performed via Design-Expert 13.0 software, yielding optimal parameters: long side 125 mm, short side 35 mm, horizontal included angle 60°, corresponding to 9.105 m/s outlet velocity and 0.045 m³/s volume flow rate. A prototype mowing device with these parameters was fabricated for orchard field tests. Results show an average stubble stability coefficient of 94.2%, average over-stubble loss rate of 0.39%, and crushed grass segment distribution variation coefficient of 23.8%, meeting orchard mower operation requirements and providing technical support for orchard weed mowing, coverage, and utilization. Full article

Maize is one of the top three crops globally, ranking only behind rice and wheat, making it an important crop of interest. Aboveground biomass is a key indicator for assessing maize growth and its yield potential. This study developed an efficient and stable biomass prediction model to estimate the aboveground biomass (AGB) of spring maize (Zea mays L.) under subsurface drip irrigation in arid regions, based on UAV multispectral remote sensing and machine learning techniques. Focusing on typical subsurface drip-irrigated spring maize in arid Xinjiang, multispectral images and field-measured AGB data were collected from 96 sample points (selected via stratified random sampling across 24 plots) over four key phenological stages in 2024 and 2025. Sixteen vegetation indices were calculated and 40 texture features were extracted using the gray-level co-occurrence matrix method, while an integrated feature-selection strategy combining Elastic Net and Random Forest was employed to effectively screen key predictor variables. Based on the selected features, six machine learning models were constructed, including Elastic Net Regression (ENR), Gradient Boosting Decision Trees (GBDT), Gaussian Process Regression (GPR), Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR), Random Forest (RF), and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGB). Results showed that the fused feature set comprised four vegetation indices (GRDVI, RERVI, GRVI, NDVI) and five texture features (R_Corr, NIR_Mean, NIR_Vari, B_Mean, B_Corr), thereby retaining red-edge and visible-light texture information highly sensitive to AGB. The GPR model based on the fused features exhibited the best performance (test set R² = 0.852, RMSE = 2890.74 kg ha⁻¹, MAE = 1676.70 kg ha⁻¹), demonstrating high fitting accuracy and stable predictive ability across both the training and test sets. Spatial inversions over the two growing seasons of 2024 and 2025, derived from the fused-feature GPR optimal model at four key phenological stages, revealed pronounced spatiotemporal heterogeneity and stage-dependent dynamics of spring maize AGB: the biomass accumulates rapidly from jointing to grain filling, slows thereafter, and peaks at maturity. At a constant planting density, AGB increased markedly with nitrogen inputs from N0 to N3 (420 kg N ha⁻¹), with the high-nitrogen N3 treatment producing the greatest biomass; this successfully captured the regulatory effect of the nitrogen gradient on maize growth, provided reliable data for variable-rate fertilization, and is highly relevant for optimizing water–fertilizer coordination in subsurface drip irrigation systems. Future research may extend this integrated feature selection and modeling framework to monitor the growth and estimate the yield of other crops, such as rice and cotton, thereby validating its generalizability and robustness in diverse agricultural scenarios. Full article

Rapid urbanization in China has driven annual food waste production to 130 million tons, posing severe environmental challenges for anaerobic digestate management. To resolve trade-offs among drying efficiency, resource recovery (fertilizer/fuel), and carbon neutrality by optimizing the biodried product (BDP) recycling ratio (0–15%), six BDP treatments were tested in 60 L bioreactors. Metrics included drying kinetics, product properties, and environmental–economic trade-offs. The results showed that 12% BDP achieved a peak temperature integral (514.13 °C·d), an optimal biodrying index (3.67), and shortened the cycle to 12 days. Furthermore, 12% BDP yielded total nutrients (N + P₂O₅ + K₂O) of 4.19%, meeting the NY 525-2021 standard in China, while ≤3% BDP maximized fuel suitability with LHV > 5000 kJ·kg⁻¹, compliant with CEN/TC 343 RDF standards. BDP recycling reduced global warming potential by 27.3% and eliminated leachate generation, mitigating groundwater contamination risks. The RDF pathway (12% BDP) achieved the highest NPV (USD 716,725), whereas organic fertilizer required farmland subsidies (28.57/ton) to offset its low market value. A 12% BDP recycling ratio optimally balances technical feasibility, environmental safety, and economic returns, offering a closed-loop solution for global food waste valorization. Full article